Overview and Structure
“A Source Book in Indian Philosophy” is a comprehensive anthology compiled and edited by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore, first published in 1957. This work stands as one of the most influential and widely-used collections of primary source materials from the Indian philosophical tradition, designed to make the vast corpus of Indian thought accessible to English-speaking students, scholars, and general readers. The book presents carefully selected excerpts from foundational texts spanning more than three millennia of Indian philosophical development, accompanied by substantial introductions and explanatory notes that contextualize each tradition and text.
The anthology is organized systematically, moving through the major schools and systems of Indian philosophy in a roughly chronological progression, though the arrangement also reflects thematic and systematic considerations. Each major section is prefaced by an editorial introduction that outlines the historical development, central doctrines, key concepts, and philosophical significance of the tradition being presented. The selections themselves are drawn from authoritative translations, many specially prepared or revised for this volume, ensuring both scholarly accuracy and readability.
The scope is genuinely encyclopedic, covering the Vedic hymns and Upanishads that form the foundation of Indian thought, the heterodox systems of Buddhism and Jainism, the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy, and the devotional and theistic traditions that developed alongside and in dialogue with these philosophical systems. The book runs to several hundred pages of primary source material, making it not merely an introduction but a substantial resource for sustained study.
The Vedic Foundation
The anthology opens with selections from the Rig Veda, the oldest of the Vedic texts and among the most ancient religious and philosophical documents in any Indo-European language. Radhakrishnan and Moore include hymns that reveal the earliest Indian speculation about cosmology, the nature of the divine, and the origins of existence. The famous “Hymn of Creation” (Nasadiya Sukta) is presented, with its profound questioning of ultimate origins: it contemplates a time before being and non-being, before death and immortality, and asks whether even the gods came after creation, concluding with the agnostic suggestion that perhaps only the one who surveys all from the highest heaven knows how creation came to be—or perhaps even that one does not know.
Other Vedic selections illustrate the polytheistic character of early Vedic religion, with hymns to Indra, Agni, Varuna, and other deities, but also show the movement toward a more unified conception of the divine. The editors highlight passages that suggest an underlying unity behind the multiplicity of divine names and forms, a tendency that would become central to later Upanishadic thought.
The Upanishads receive extensive treatment, as these texts mark the transition from ritual-centered Vedic religion to the philosophical speculation that characterizes classical Indian thought. Radhakrishnan and Moore include substantial excerpts from the principal Upanishads: the Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Kena, Katha, Isha, Mundaka, Svetasvatara, Prashna, and Mandukya, among others. These selections trace the development of fundamental concepts that would dominate Indian philosophy: Brahman (the ultimate reality), Atman (the self or soul), the identity of Atman and Brahman, karma (action and its consequences), samsara (the cycle of rebirth), and moksha (liberation).
The famous teaching scenes are included: the instruction of Svetaketu by his father Uddalava in the Chandogya Upanishad, with its repeated refrain “Tat tvam asi” (That thou art), identifying the individual self with ultimate reality; the dialogue between the sage Yajnavalkya and his wife Maitreyi in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad on the nature of the self and immortality; the teaching of Nachiketas by Yama, the god of death, in the Katha Upanishad, which explores the distinction between the pleasant and the good, the nature of the self that transcends death, and the path to immortality.
The Heterodox Traditions: Buddhism
The Buddhist section is substantial, reflecting Buddhism’s profound influence on Indian thought and its status as one of the world’s major philosophical and religious traditions. The editors begin with materials that convey the Buddha’s fundamental teachings as preserved in the Pali Canon, the earliest Buddhist scriptures. The Four Noble Truths are presented: the truth of suffering (dukkha), the truth of the origin of suffering in craving (tanha), the truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha), and the truth of the path leading to cessation (the Noble Eightfold Path). The doctrine of dependent origination (pratitya-samutpada) is explained through canonical texts, showing how suffering arises through a chain of causation involving ignorance, karmic formations, consciousness, name-and-form, the six sense bases, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, becoming, birth, and finally old age and death.
The anthology includes the Buddha’s teachings on the nature of the self, particularly the doctrine of anatta (no-self), which denies the existence of a permanent, unchanging soul or essence. Selections illustrate the analysis of the person into five aggregates (skandhas): form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness—none of which constitutes a permanent self. The doctrine of impermanence (anicca) is presented through texts showing that all conditioned things are transient and subject to change.
The development of Buddhist philosophy is traced through selections from later schools. The Theravada tradition is represented through Abhidhamma materials that analyze experience into momentary dharmas (ultimate constituents of reality). The Mahayana development receives extensive coverage, including texts from the Madhyamaka school founded by Nagarjuna. Selections from Nagarjuna’s works present his doctrine of emptiness (shunyata), arguing that all phenomena are empty of inherent existence (svabhava) and exist only in dependence on causes, conditions, and conceptual designation. The famous tetralemma is illustrated, showing Nagarjuna’s dialectical method of negating all possible positions regarding existence and non-existence.
The Yogacara or Consciousness-Only school is represented through texts that develop an idealist metaphysics, arguing that all phenomena are manifestations of consciousness. The doctrine of the three natures (trisvabhava) is explained: the imagined nature (parikalpita), the dependent nature (paratantra), and the perfected nature (parinishpanna). The concept of the storehouse consciousness (alaya-vijnana) is introduced, which stores the seeds of karmic impressions that give rise to future experiences.
Jainism
The Jain section presents this ancient tradition’s distinctive philosophical contributions. The anthology includes materials on Jain metaphysics, which posits a pluralistic universe of eternal souls (jivas) and matter (ajiva). The Jain doctrine of karma is explained as a subtle material substance that adheres to the soul through action and passion, weighing it down in the cycle of rebirth. Liberation consists in the complete removal of karmic matter, allowing the soul to rise to the top of the universe in its pure, omniscient state.
The editors highlight Jain epistemology, particularly the doctrine of many-sidedness (anekantavada) and the related theory of conditional predication (syadvada). These doctrines hold that reality is complex and multifaceted, and that any statement about it is true only from a particular perspective or under certain conditions. The famous example of the blind men and the elephant is associated with this teaching. This epistemological pluralism is presented as a middle way between absolutism and skepticism, acknowledging the partial validity of different viewpoints while denying that any single perspective captures the whole truth.
Jain ethics receives attention, particularly the principle of non-violence (ahimsa) carried to its most rigorous extreme. The five great vows of Jain monks are presented: non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-possession. The text explains the Jain classification of souls according to the number of senses they possess, and the consequent obligation to avoid harming even the smallest creatures.
The Six Orthodox Systems: Samkhya and Yoga
The anthology then turns to the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy, which accept the authority of the Vedas, though they interpret them in vastly different ways. The Samkhya system is presented through selections from the Samkhya-Karika of Ishvarakrishna, the foundational text of classical Samkhya. This dualistic system posits two ultimate principles: purusha (pure consciousness, the self) and prakriti (primordial matter or nature). The text explains how prakriti, though unconscious, evolves through the interaction of its three constituent qualities (gunas)—sattva (illumination), rajas (activity), and tamas (inertia)—to produce the manifest universe, including the intellect (buddhi), ego (ahamkara), mind (manas), the sense organs, the organs of action, and the subtle and gross elements.
The Samkhya account of bondage and liberation is presented: bondage consists in the false identification of purusha with the products of prakriti, particularly the intellect and ego. Liberation occurs when purusha realizes its absolute distinction from prakriti, recognizing itself as pure witness-consciousness untouched by the modifications of matter. This realization causes prakriti to cease its evolution for that particular purusha, like a dancer who stops performing once she has been seen.
The Yoga system of Patanjali is presented through extensive selections from the Yoga Sutras, one of the most influential texts in Indian philosophy. While Yoga accepts the Samkhya metaphysics, it adds a theistic element in the form of Ishvara (the Lord), a special purusha who has never been touched by afflictions, actions, or their results. The anthology presents Patanjali’s definition of yoga as the cessation of the modifications of the mind (chitta-vritti-nirodha), and his systematic exposition of the means to achieve this.
The eight limbs (ashtanga) of yoga are explained: ethical restraints (yama), observances (niyama), posture (asana), breath control (pranayama), withdrawal of the senses (pratyahara), concentration (dharana), meditation (dhyana), and absorption (samadhi). The text details the five afflictions (kleshas) that bind consciousness: ignorance, egoism, attachment, aversion, and clinging to life. The various types of samadhi are distinguished, from samprajnata samadhi (cognitive absorption) with its stages of reasoning, reflection, bliss, and pure I-am-ness, to asamprajnata samadhi (non-cognitive absorption) in which even these subtle mental contents cease.
Nyaya and Vaisheshika
The Nyaya school is presented as the Indian tradition of logic and epistemology. Selections from the Nyaya Sutras of Gautama and their commentaries lay out the Nyaya theory of knowledge, which recognizes four valid means of knowledge (pramanas): perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. The anthology explains the Nyaya analysis of inference, which distinguishes the five-membered syllogism: the proposition to be proved, the reason, the universal concomitance illustrated by an example, the application to the present case, and the conclusion. This differs from the Aristotelian syllogism in its explicit inclusion of examples and its emphasis on the invariable concomitance between the reason and what is to be proved.
The Nyaya theory of causation is presented, along with its realist ontology that posits the independent existence of external objects. The text includes Nyaya arguments for the existence of God as the efficient cause of the universe, based on the need for an intelligent agent to arrange the atoms and souls according to their karmic deserts.
The Vaisheshika system, closely allied with Nyaya, is presented through selections from the Vaisheshika Sutras of Kanada. This school develops an atomic theory and a detailed categorial scheme for analyzing reality. The anthology explains the seven categories (padarthas): substance, quality, action, generality, particularity, inherence, and non-existence. The nine substances are enumerated: earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, self, and mind. The Vaisheshika atomic theory is explained: the four material elements (earth, water, fire, air) are composed of eternal, indivisible, imperceptible atoms that combine to form perceptible objects. The text details how atoms combine in dyads and triads to produce the manifest world.
Mimamsa and Vedanta
The Mimamsa school, focused on the interpretation of Vedic ritual texts, is presented through selections from the Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini and their commentaries. The anthology explains the Mimamsa theory of language and meaning, which holds that the relationship between words and their meanings is eternal and natural rather than conventional. This supports the Mimamsa view of the Vedas as authorless (apaurusheya) and eternally valid.
The Mimamsa epistemology is presented, particularly its doctrine of intrinsic validity (svatah-pramanya), which holds that all cognitions are initially valid in themselves and need no external confirmation; invalidity must be established by subsequent contradictory experience. The text explains the Mimamsa theory of dharma (duty) as known exclusively through Vedic injunctions, and its emphasis on the performance of Vedic rituals as the means to achieve both worldly prosperity and heavenly rewards.
The Vedanta section is the most extensive, reflecting this school’s central importance in Hindu philosophy. The anthology presents the three foundational texts (prasthana-trayi) of Vedanta: the Upanishads (already covered), the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana, and the Bhagavad Gita. Substantial selections from the Brahma Sutras are included, showing how this text systematizes Upanishadic teaching into a coherent philosophical system. The sutras address key questions: the nature of Brahman, the relationship between Brahman and the world, the nature of the individual self, the means of liberation, and the state of the liberated soul.
The Bhagavad Gita receives extensive treatment as perhaps the most beloved and influential text in Hindu tradition. The anthology presents the dialogue between Arjuna and Krishna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, where Arjuna, overcome by moral doubt about fighting his kinsmen, receives instruction in philosophy, ethics, and spiritual practice. The Gita’s teaching on karma yoga (the path of action) is presented: one should perform one’s duty without attachment to the fruits of action, offering all actions to God. The path of knowledge (jnana yoga) is explained, emphasizing the distinction between the eternal self and the perishable body, and the realization of the self’s identity with Brahman. The path of devotion (bhakti yoga) is presented through passages expressing intense personal devotion to Krishna as the supreme Lord.
The anthology includes Krishna’s cosmic vision (vishvarupa), in which he reveals himself as the source and substance of all existence, containing all beings within himself. The Gita’s synthesis of different paths—action, knowledge, and devotion—is highlighted as one of its distinctive contributions.
The development of Vedanta into different schools is traced through selections from the major commentators. Shankara’s Advaita (non-dualist) Vedanta is presented extensively, as this became the most influential interpretation. Selections from Shankara’s commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras, and Bhagavad Gita explain his doctrine that Brahman alone is real, the world is an appearance (maya), and the individual self (jiva) is ultimately identical with Brahman. The apparent multiplicity and difference are due to ignorance (avidya); liberation consists in the realization of one’s true nature as Brahman through knowledge.
Shankara’s doctrine of two levels of truth is explained: the conventional level (vyavaharika) at which the world and individual selves appear real and distinct, and the ultimate level (paramarthika) at which only non-dual Brahman exists. The famous examples illustrating the appearance of multiplicity are included: the rope mistaken for a snake, the shell mistaken for silver. Just as the snake and silver are unreal appearances superimposed on the real rope and shell, so the world is an unreal appearance superimposed on Brahman.
The qualified non-dualism (Vishishtadvaita) of Ramanuja is presented as an alternative interpretation of Vedanta. Selections from Ramanuja’s works show his critique of Shankara’s absolute monism and his own view that Brahman is qualified by real attributes and contains real distinctions within itself. The world and individual souls are real, though they exist as modes or attributes of Brahman, related to it as body to soul. Liberation consists not in the realization of identity with an impersonal absolute, but in the loving communion with a personal God.
The dualistic Vedanta (Dvaita) of Madhva is also represented, showing his insistence on the eternal distinction between God, souls, and matter. Madhva’s five-fold difference (pancha-bheda) is explained: the difference between God and souls, God and matter, souls and matter, one soul and another, and one material thing and another.
Devotional and Theistic Traditions
Beyond the formal philosophical schools, the anthology includes materials from devotional (bhakti) movements that developed powerful theological and philosophical expressions. Selections from the Tamil Shaiva and Vaishnava saints (Nayanars and Alvars) present the passionate devotional poetry that emphasized personal relationship with God over ritual or philosophical speculation. These texts express the soul’s longing for union with the divine, the pain of separation, and the joy of divine grace.
The Kashmir Shaivism tradition is represented through selections that present its distinctive non-dualistic philosophy centered on Shiva as the absolute reality. The doctrine of Spanda (vibration or pulsation) is explained as the dynamic aspect of consciousness through which the one becomes many. The concept of Shakti (power or energy) as inseparable from Shiva is presented, along with the teaching that the entire universe is a manifestation of divine consciousness through its own free will (svatantrya).
Editorial Approach and Significance
Throughout the anthology, Radhakrishnan and Moore provide substantial editorial apparatus that makes the primary sources accessible to readers unfamiliar with Indian philosophy. Each major section begins with an introduction that situates the tradition historically, explains its central concerns and doctrines, and indicates its relationship to other schools. These introductions are scholarly yet readable, drawing on both traditional Indian commentaries and modern academic scholarship.
The editors are careful to present each tradition on its own terms, allowing the texts to speak for themselves while providing necessary context and explanation. They highlight both the diversity of Indian philosophical thought—the real disagreements and debates between schools—and the common concerns and concepts that unite the tradition: the problem of suffering and liberation, the nature of the self, the relationship between the one and the many, the means of valid knowledge, and the path to ultimate realization.
The selection of texts reflects a balance between comprehensiveness and accessibility. The anthology includes enough material to give a genuine sense of each tradition’s philosophical substance, but not so much as to overwhelm the reader. The translations are generally clear and accurate, though they sometimes reflect the somewhat formal English style of mid-twentieth-century scholarship.
The Editors and Their Context
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was one of the most prominent Indian philosophers of the twentieth century, serving as professor of philosophy at several universities, including Oxford, and eventually as President of India. His own philosophical work sought to interpret Indian philosophy for Western audiences and to demonstrate its continuing relevance. He was particularly associated with Advaita Vedanta, though he interpreted it in a way that emphasized its compatibility with modern thought and its openness to other traditions.
Charles A. Moore was an American philosopher who specialized in comparative philosophy and played a key role in promoting East-West philosophical dialogue. He organized several influential East-West philosophy conferences and edited volumes of comparative philosophy.
The collaboration between Radhakrishnan and Moore reflects the mid-twentieth-century project of making Asian philosophy accessible to Western academic audiences and establishing it as a legitimate field of philosophical study. The anthology was designed for use in university courses on Indian or Asian philosophy, and it has served that purpose for generations of students.
Reception and Influence
“A Source Book in Indian Philosophy” became a standard text in courses on Indian philosophy throughout the English-speaking world and remains widely used today. Its comprehensiveness, the quality of its selections, and the clarity of its editorial apparatus made it an invaluable resource for students and scholars. For many Western students, it provided their first substantial encounter with primary sources from the Indian philosophical tradition.
The anthology has been praised for its scope and for making a vast and complex tradition accessible without oversimplification. It has been criticized by some scholars for certain interpretive choices in the introductions, particularly for sometimes presenting Indian philosophy through categories and concerns derived from Western philosophy, and for occasionally emphasizing unity and synthesis over the real diversity and conflict within the tradition. Some have also noted that the selection reflects a somewhat Vedanta-centric view of Indian philosophy, though this is perhaps inevitable given Vedanta’s historical dominance and Radhakrishnan’s own philosophical commitments.
Despite these criticisms, the work remains an essential resource. It provides access to a wide range of primary sources in reliable translations, and its editorial apparatus, while reflecting its time, remains helpful and informative. For anyone seeking to understand the breadth and depth of Indian philosophical thought, this anthology provides an indispensable starting point and a valuable reference throughout one’s study.
The book’s influence extends beyond the classroom. It has shaped how Indian philosophy is understood and taught in the West, and it has provided a model for similar anthologies in other areas of non-Western philosophy. Its success demonstrated that there was a substantial audience for serious engagement with Asian philosophical traditions, and it helped establish Indian philosophy as a recognized field within academic philosophy departments.
