This volume presents the posthumous publication of Hugo Grotius’s annotations on the Epistles of St. Paul, specifically covering the Epistle to the Romans and the Epistle to the Galatians. The work appeared in a London edition of 1752, edited and prepared for publication by Timothy Edwards, who served as Vicar of Okehampton in Devon, with the work being brought to press after Edwards’s death by Manister Barnard, Rector of Whiteflone in Devon. The book opens with a dedication to Sir William Courtenay, a title page bearing Greek epigraphs drawn from the Gospel of John and Paul’s First Epistle to the Corinthians, and an extensive list of subscribers drawn chiefly from the Devon and Cornwall gentry and clergy.
The volume is structured as a scholarly apparatus around the biblical text, presenting the Epistle to the Romans in parallel columns of Scripture and paraphrase, with interspersed explanatory notes and analytical summaries prefixed to each section. The work includes a substantial preface explaining the circumstances of its publication, an introduction by the original author describing his interpretive method, a general argument concerning the occasion and design of the Epistle, and an analytical scheme breaking down the letter’s structure into its component parts. The annotations themselves proceed verse by verse through the text, offering paraphrase, commentary, and occasional textual notes, including observations on manuscript variants such as those found in the Codex Alexandrinus.
The preface reveals that the work was undertaken to fulfill the author’s own desire for publication, with the text transcribed as a fair copy from his original manuscript without the least alteration, after having been revised and approved by learned men. The author had intended to cover all of St. Paul’s Epistles but died before completing the design, leaving only the published portions finished. The editor expresses awareness that such treatises receive little encouragement in what he characterizes as anti-scriptural and deistical times, when Freethinkers were leveling their darts at the very foundation of Christianity.
Context
The work emerges from a particular moment in eighteenth-century English religious life, when the editor’s preface voices considerable anxiety about the state of Christian belief. The publication is framed as a defense of orthodox Christianity against the challenges of Deism, infidelity, and licentiousness that the editor sees as corrupting the age. The dedication to Sir William Courtenay praises him specifically for his steady adherence to orthodox principles of religion in an age corrupted by these forces, and for his unbiased attachment to the constitution in both Church and State. This positioning of the work as a bulwark against unbelief reflects the broader theological controversies of the period, when the authority of Scripture itself was being called into question by those who sought to establish what the preface calls libertine principles on natural unaided reason.
The editor draws an evocative comparison between the Freethinkers of his own day and the Traditors of the early church—those who, during the Diocletian persecution, had been willing to deliver the Sacred Scriptures to be burnt. The implication is that the contemporary opponents of Christianity were engaged in a similar betrayal, handing over the foundational documents of the faith to destruction. The preface warns these daring supplanters of Revelation to beware lest God take vengeance, and points to the rejection and dispersion of the Jews as a lasting monument of God’s displeasure at obstinacy and unbelief. The Jews, in this reading, serve as a perpetual warning: their judicial blindness is the consequence of infidelity and hardness of heart, verifying the prophetic passage that they have eyes and see not.
The work also stands within a longer tradition of biblical commentary and paraphrase. The author’s own introduction explains his method as neither interpreting words by their first sound nor implicitly following commentators on single texts, because no particular explication matters as much as first giving a distinct view of the general design of the whole Epistle. This emphasis on discerning the overall argument of a biblical book before attending to its individual parts reflects the hermeneutical principles that had been developing in Protestant biblical scholarship since the Reformation. The author testifies that he made divinity his chief study for many years and particularly applied himself to explaining these Epistles, and the preface-writer esteems him a person of great learning and sound judgment who perfectly understood the original text.
The occasion for the Epistle to the Romans itself, as reconstructed in the general argument, lies in the circumstances of Paul’s ministry. When Paul was separated to preach to the Gentiles, he chose as his travel rule the prophecy of Isaiah: to whom he was not spoken of, they shall see, and they that have not heard shall understand. He avoided preaching where the Gospel was already known, lest he build upon another man’s foundation, and thus had not yet visited Rome. Hearing of the Gospel’s success throughout the Roman empire, he desired to impart spiritual gifts and reap a ministerial harvest there, having been providentially disappointed multiple times in his attempts to come. Having preached from Jerusalem to Illyricum and traveled through Greece and Lesser Asia to Corinth, he planned to go to Rome on his way to Spain, but was prevented by the request of the churches of Macedonia and Achaia that he carry their collection for the poor Judean Christians. Obliged to return to Jerusalem, he sent this pastoral letter instead, pleading his office as Apostle especially to the Gentiles.
Structure of the Book
The volume presents a systematic analysis of the Epistle to the Romans, organizing the letter into a coherent structure that the analytical scheme lays out in detail. The Epistle proper begins with the Salutation in the first chapter, followed by the Introduction, and then the main Subject Matter, which is a discourse on the Gospel with both doctrinal and practical branches. The doctrinal portion opens with a definition of the Gospel and proceeds through a carefully ordered sequence of arguments.
The first major division of the Epistle addresses Gentile converts, satisfying them of their title to God’s favour through the Gospel alone. This section demonstrates the Gospel dispensation’s necessity, sufficiency, and universal extent. The argument begins with the reason for the Gospel’s institution, drawn from the necessity of salvation—evident from God’s wrath against all ungodliness and the universal depravity of both Gentiles, who corrupted themselves against natural law, and Jews, who transgressed the law of Moses despite boasting of the law and circumcision. The analysis then shows that a man is justified by the obedience of the Gospel only, without observing the law of Moses, since God is one God of both Jews and Gentiles. The proof of the Gospel’s sufficiency is drawn from Abraham’s example, who was justified for faithful obedience before the institution of circumcision, and from David’s declaration in the Psalms. The Gospel’s universal extent is shown by Abraham being declared father of many nations as the pattern of justification for all who imitate him.
The blessed fruits of the Gospel include peace with God, assurance of eternal happiness, glory in afflictions producing patience, the sense of God’s love raised by the Holy Spirit and reason, and assurance that God is our God through Jesus Christ. The comparison of Adam and Christ demonstrates that the righteousness of the second Adam is more effectual toward salvation than the first Adam’s sin was toward destruction. Through Christ, believers are delivered from the consequences of Adam’s sin and justified from actual sins, entirely by God’s gracious mercy, excluding the law. The Mosaic law’s fatal consequence was that Jews under it were plunged deeper into wrath and needed Gospel mercy more than Gentiles, receiving greater abundance of grace—where sin abounded, grace did much more abound. A practical observation notes that though free grace justifies all believers, the Gospel offers no encouragement to continue in sin but lays the strictest obligation to holiness.
The second major division addresses Jewish converts, showing that the new Christian institutions abolish the old Mosaic ones. This section uses the similitude of a woman bound to her husband while he lives—believers have become dead to the law by the body of Christ to be married to Christ. The law required exact, unsinning obedience while discovering sin’s guilt without providing escape or recovery, leaving men subject to eternal death; only Gospel mercy delivers through Christ’s sacrifice and the new covenant’s gracious terms. This division covers the discharge from the Mosaic law as by death, the obligation to embrace the Gospel, the clarification that the law was not the proper cause of sin or death but became the occasion through transgression, and the true account of man’s perplexity between reason approving the law and evil affections drawing into sin, from which only God’s mercy in Christ delivers.
The third major division addresses the Jewish rejection of the Gospel, vindicating God’s faithfulness in the face of apparent breach of promise. Paul shows that unbelieving Jews are rejected from being God’s people, though a remnant is saved, and that God has not rejected them finally—Gentile conversion shall become the means of converting Jews, restoring all mankind. This section contains Paul’s vindication from the prejudice that his doctrine implied God’s unfaithfulness, demonstrated through the rejections of Ishmael and Esau and God’s declaration to Moses, followed by answers to objections, the consequences of Jewish unbelief in bringing Gentiles into the church, and observations that Jewish rejection is neither total nor final, with their restoration terminating in general salvation.
A fourth part contains moral and practical exhortations, which the analysis identifies as Paul’s constant way of concluding his epistles. The book’s treatment of the Epistle to the Galatians follows a similar pattern of paraphrase and annotation, though the notes provided focus primarily on the Romans material.
Main Arguments
The central argument of the annotations concerns the nature of justification and acceptance with God. The work contends that justification comes through faithful observance of the Gospel alone, without any regard to the ceremonial law of Moses. This thesis is supported by an extensive analysis of Paul’s reasoning, which shows that the Gospel dispensation was necessary because of the universal depravity of mankind, sufficient because it provides a complete method of salvation, and universal in extent because it is offered to all people on the same terms.
The annotations argue that the law of Moses could not justify because it required exact, unsinning, perfect obedience while discovering the heinous nature of sin without supplying power to avoid it or means of recovery. The law worked wrath by producing in consciences a sense of God’s displeasure, leaving men subject to eternal death. The Gospel, by contrast, reveals God’s gracious method of mercy to penitents through Jesus Christ, who is proposed as the true propitiatory and sole author of justification. The work emphasizes that God has manifested and promulgated this method of justification without the Mosaic law, showing mercy to penitents and bringing men to salvation through Jesus Christ.
A key argument concerns the comparison between Adam and Christ. The righteousness of the second Adam is more effectual toward salvation than the first Adam’s sin was toward destruction. As sin and death entered by one man, so righteousness and eternal life come by one man. The annotations stress that God’s mercy is an infinitely greater principle to do good than one man’s offence was to do mischief. If death reigned through one man’s offence, much more shall those who receive abundance of grace and the gift of righteousness reign in life by Jesus Christ. God’s love not only redeems men from their lost condition but advances them beyond their natural and original capacities, making them heirs of God and joint-heirs with Christ. By Adam, mankind lost animal immortality in an earthly Paradise; by Jesus Christ they are advanced to spiritual eternity in the kingdom of Heaven, exalted beyond original capacity to some similitude of the Son of God.
The annotations also argue that the law entered that the offence might abound, but where sin abounded, grace did much more abound. The law was given to the Jewish nation, and though contrary to its design, it aggravated guilt and increased condemnation for those under it. This argument serves to show that Jews were in no better position than Gentiles regarding justification—indeed, they were in a worse position, since the law sank them deeper under sin, so they needed Gospel mercy more than Gentiles.
Regarding the Jewish rejection of the Gospel, the annotations argue that God has not been unfaithful to his promises. The promise was originally made to Isaac only, not to all Abraham’s children, and to Jacob rather than both of Isaac’s sons. Among Jacob’s posterity, not all Israel were truly Israel. God had mercy on whom he would during the period of the law, and whom he would he hardened, as with Pharaoh. Much more now at the Messiah’s coming may God reject unbelievers and receive Gentiles who imitate Abraham’s faith. The rejected Jews’ own obstinacy made them liable to punishment, and God deals with them as he dealt with Pharaoh, who refused to hearken. The annotations emphasize that God hardens hearts providentially, not intentionally—his goodness produces contrary effects through human obstinacy.
The work also argues that the Gospel offers no encouragement to continue in sin. Though free grace justifies all believers, it lays the strictest obligation to holiness. Christians, as disciples of Christ, have put off the body of sin and cannot live in known vice consistently with their profession. Baptism signifies this—by descending under water they declare trust in Christ’s death and make profession of dying unto sin and rising unto righteousness. The annotations stress that eternal life is not a reward but a gracious gift through Jesus Christ, yet this grace does not license sin but rather obliges to obedience.
Key Concepts
The annotations develop several specific interpretive concepts that govern their reading of the Epistle. One of the most significant is the translation of the phrase righteousness of God as the mercy of God in Christ Jesus. The work argues that since just men are disposed to goodness, God’s mercy is called righteousness because it is agreeable to essential goodness. The annotations discuss God’s reluctance to punish, calling it his strange work, and argue that it was equitable for God to show mercy to fallen creatures while maintaining the authority of his government.
The concept of faith is treated with careful attention to its various meanings in Paul’s usage. Faith sometimes signifies the doctrine of the Gospel, while in other contexts it denotes the power of working miracles and conferring extraordinary gifts of the Holy Ghost. Regarding the Roman converts, faith signifies their obedience to the Gospel. The phrase from faith to faith means from one degree of revelation to another, from the less clear dispensation under the law to the clearer one under the Gospel.
The annotations give particular attention to the meaning of the Greek term hilasterion in Romans 3, arguing that it signifies propitiatory or mercy-seat rather than propitiation. As the mercy-seat was where the High Priest made atonement, so Christ made atonement by his own blood, and as God declared his pleasure there, so Christ delivers the word of reconciliation. This reading emphasizes Christ as the antitype of the Old Testament mercy-seat, the place where God’s presence and pardon were manifested.
The concept of the creature in Romans 8 receives extended treatment. The annotations argue that in New Testament language, creature generally signifies mankind, especially the unconverted Gentile world. The whole creation that groans and travails together refers to the yet-Gentile or unconverted part of mankind—those nations to whom the Gospel would later be preached—in contradistinction to the first-fruits who had already received it. The annotations note that in Scripture-language, desire and expectation are attributed to creatures regarding things they need though they implicitly know nothing of them, citing Christ as the expectation of the Gentiles and the desire of all nations.
The work develops a detailed anthropology in its treatment of Romans 7. Man is compounded of body and mind. The body is the seat of sense and appetite—the directing principle in man as a sensitive animal. The mind contains reason and conscience—the governing power as man is a rational creature. By reason, man is necessarily obliged to approve what is good, but because happiness and bodily pleasure are also necessarily desirable, and the path to present happiness often lies through forbidden practices, man has an inclination to evil. Appetites and passions are so importunate that they draw him unavoidably into transgression, bringing him under subjection to sin and the terror of condemnation, from which he is delivered only by God’s mercy in Christ Jesus.
The annotations explain that the I of Romans 7 is put indefinitely for any unconverted Jew under the law, though the description also applies to any Gentile under the original law of God. The passage describes man’s unconverted state, labouring under the law’s rigour, sensible of guilt without possibility of avoiding it. The law is spiritual, agreeable to reason and conscience, but man is carnal, having an animal body subject to appetites. A man’s actions do not always proceed from deliberate approbation of judgment; he does what he condemns. When he transgresses and condemns himself, he acknowledges the law is good. The I that sins is not the reasonable soul—the proper person—but sin that dwelleth in him, the natural inclination to evil.
The concept of adoption receives careful treatment in the annotations on Romans 8. Under the Christian dispensation, believers are not placed in bondage as Jews were under the legal dispensation, with servile terror from sin’s inevitability. Instead, they receive a spirit of adoption producing filial confidence, approaching God as a merciful father, not a severe master. This filial disposition, arising from God’s fatherly treatment, testifies to conscience that believers are God’s children. The Holy Spirit confirms this testimony through Scripture’s declarations compared with conscience’s verdict.
Themes
The annotations repeatedly sound the theme of divine mercy as the fundamental principle of God’s dealings with humanity. The work presents God’s mercy in Christ Jesus as the very content of the Gospel, the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith. This mercy is not opposed to justice but is itself called righteousness because it flows from God’s essential goodness. The annotations emphasize that God’s reluctance to punish is such that punishment is called his strange work, while mercy is his natural and delightful activity. Yet this mercy is not indiscriminate: it is shown to penitents who embrace the Gospel’s terms, while those who obstinately reject Christ are denied before the Father.
The theme of human inability and divine enablement runs throughout the annotations. The law could not justify because it required what fallen humanity could not perform—exact, unsinning, perfect obedience. The law discovered sin’s guilt without providing escape or recovery, leaving men subject to eternal death. The annotations describe the human condition as one of unavoidable transgression: appetites and passions are so importunate that they draw man unavoidably into sin, bringing him under subjection and terror. Yet this bleak picture is not the final word. God never dealt with men according to the strictness and rigour of the law but anticipated the favour of the Gospel, dealing with men by the gracious terms of the new covenant. Patriarchs and holy men under the law were justified by faith, and God pardoned sinners upon true repentance.
The relationship between the old and new dispensations forms another central theme. The annotations present the Mosaic law as a rigorous and severe system that could only condemn, while the Gospel offers grace and truth through Jesus Christ. Yet the law was not evil—it was spiritual, agreeable to reason and conscience, ordained to life. Its fault lay not in itself but in human frailty: the least trespass brought death because the law could not remove the weakness of fallen nature. The annotations stress that the law was given to the Jewish nation, and though contrary to its design, it aggravated guilt and increased condemnation for those under it. The Gospel, by contrast, abolishes the ceremonial law while fulfilling the moral law’s demands through the grace of Christ.
The theme of Jewish and Gentile relations in the divine plan receives extended treatment. The annotations present the Gospel as breaking down the distinction between Jew and Gentile, offering salvation to all on the same terms of faith. Abraham is father of all faithful people, both circumcised and uncircumcised, because he was justified before circumcision. The promise to Abraham was not through the law but through the righteousness of faith. Yet the annotations also insist that God has not finally rejected his ancient people. Unbelieving Jews are rejected from being God’s people, though a remnant is saved, but this rejection is neither total nor final. Gentile conversion shall become the means of converting Jews, restoring all mankind.
The theme of Christian assurance and perseverance emerges in the annotations on Romans 8. Believers are assured of God’s love through the testimony of the Holy Spirit, who confirms the conscience’s verdict through Scripture’s declarations. Nothing can separate believers from Christ’s love—neither tribulation, distress, persecution, famine, nakedness, peril, nor sword. Believers are more than conquerors, glorying in tribulations with unspeakable joy. The annotations present suffering for truth and righteousness as the surest mark of sincerity, to which conscience and Scripture’s declarations bear clearest witness. Present sufferings are incomparable to the glory to be revealed, and the Spirit’s groanings in believers are not impatience but comfortable longings for heaven’s joys.
The theme of divine sovereignty and human responsibility is handled with careful balance. The annotations affirm that God has mercy on whom he will and hardens whom he will, yet they insist that God hardens hearts providentially, not intentionally—his goodness produces contrary effects through human obstinacy. Pharaoh’s hardening means that miracles made him more stubborn. The rejected Jews’ own obstinacy made them liable to punishment. The annotations rebuke profane rashness that would question God’s dealings, citing the potter’s power over clay, yet they also affirm that God endures vessels of wrath fitted for destruction with great patience, and that his judgments are always just.
The Author’s Conclusions
The annotations conclude that the Gospel of Jesus Christ is the complete and sufficient revelation of God’s method of salvation, offered freely to all who believe and obey. The work’s final sections trace Paul’s argument to its conclusion: the Gospel has been preached to all nations with success, as the prophets predicted, including God’s receiving Gentiles and casting off impenitent Jews. Yet even this casting off is not final—the restoration of the Jews will terminate in general salvation, bringing all mankind into the blessings of God’s kingdom.
The annotations emphasize that justification is entirely owing to God’s free goodness and mercy, conferred on the terms of the Gospel. A man is justified by the obedience of the Gospel only, without observing the law of Moses, since God is one God of both Jews and Gentiles. Christ died as a piacular victim for our sins and rose to give convincing proof of the atonement’s acceptance and to communicate its fruits. The work stresses that this free grace lays the strictest obligation to holiness—the Gospel offers no encouragement to continue in sin but demands that believers walk in newness of life.
The annotations conclude that God’s purposes cannot be frustrated by human unbelief. Though Israel has not obtained what it sought, a remnant has been saved by grace. The Gentiles, who did not pursue righteousness, have attained it through faith, while Israel, pursuing the law of righteousness, stumbled at the stumbling-stone. Yet this stumbling is not final: through the mercy shown to Gentiles, Israel will ultimately be provoked to jealousy and saved. The work ends with the assurance that God’s judgments are unsearchable and his ways past finding out, yet all things are of him, through him, and to him, to whom be glory forever.
The practical conclusion of the annotations is that believers should present their bodies as living sacrifices, holy and acceptable to God, which is their reasonable service. They should not be conformed to this world but transformed by the renewing of their minds, proving what is that good, acceptable, and perfect will of God. The annotations present the Christian life as one of grateful obedience flowing from the mercy received in Christ, marked by love to God and neighbour, humility, and mutual forbearance.
Significance
This volume represents a significant contribution to eighteenth-century biblical scholarship, offering a careful and learned reading of Paul’s Epistle to the Romans that seeks to recover the Apostle’s original meaning through attention to the letter’s overall design and argument. The author’s method—of first establishing the general scope of the Epistle before examining its individual parts—reflects a sophisticated hermeneutical approach that anticipates modern biblical criticism’s concern with authorial intention and literary structure.
The work’s insistence on translating righteousness of God as the mercy of God in Christ Jesus represents a distinctive interpretive choice that shapes the entire reading of the Epistle. This translation emphasizes God’s gracious character as the foundation of salvation, while the annotations’ careful discussion of the term shows an awareness of the theological stakes involved in such decisions. The treatment of hilasterion as mercy-seat rather than propitiation similarly reflects a particular theological vision of Christ’s work as the place where God’s presence and pardon are manifested.
The annotations’ handling of the Jewish question is notable for its balance. The work affirms that unbelieving Jews have been rejected from being God’s people, yet insists that this rejection is neither total nor final. The restoration of the Jews through Gentile conversion is presented as the culminating movement of redemptive history, bringing all mankind into the blessings of God’s kingdom. This reading avoids both the supersessionism that would see the church as simply replacing Israel and the alternative error of denying that God has indeed cast off the unbelieving generation.
The volume’s publication context—as a defense of orthodox Christianity against Deism and freethinking—gives it significance as a document of eighteenth-century religious controversy. The editor’s preface frames the work as a bulwark against those who would establish libertine principles on natural unaided reason, and the annotations themselves repeatedly emphasize the necessity of revelation and the insufficiency of human reason alone to discover the way of salvation. The work stands as a witness to the continuing vitality of traditional Christian orthodoxy in an age increasingly challenged by Enlightenment rationalism.
The annotations’ treatment of the Christian life as a probationary state, in which present behavior determines eternal acceptance or rejection, reflects a pastoral concern that runs throughout the work. The Gospel’s free grace is never allowed to become an excuse for license; rather, the annotations insist that those who have been justified by faith are obligated to walk in newness of life, yielding their members as instruments of righteousness. This practical emphasis, combined with the work’s scholarly rigor, makes the volume a significant example of eighteenth-century exegetical theology at its best.
Inside the Book
The Title Page, Dedication, and Subscriber List
The volume opens with the formal apparatus of a 1752 London edition of Hugo Grotius’s Annotations on the Epistles of St. Paul, covering Romans and Galatians. The work, edited by the late Timothy Edwards, A.M., Vicar of Okehampton, Devon, was published posthumously by Manister Barnard, A.M., Rector of Whiteflone, Devon. The title page bears Greek epigraphs from John 10:16 and 1 Corinthians 15:56–57, signaling the theological weight of the contents.
The dedication, signed by Barnard, is addressed to Sir William Courtenay, Bart. Barnard explains that custom obliges the prefixing of a patron’s name to public works, and he has chosen Courtenay out of gratitude for unmerited favors. He praises Courtenay’s noble lineage, tracing it through antiquity, but insists that his high extraction is rendered more noble by personal merit. Barnard commends Courtenay’s steadfast adherence to orthodox religion in an age corrupted by Deism and infidelity, his loyalty to the constitution in Church and State, his faithful discharge of public trust, and his munificent charity to the poor. He refrains from dwelling on Courtenay’s private virtues, knowing his subject’s modesty, and closes with wishes for his health, his lady’s happiness, and that their offspring may prove a blessing.
The subscriber list follows, naming Sir William Courtenay, the Earl of Abingdon, Lord Viscount Windsor, Lord Guernsey, Lord Rolle, Lord Ranelagh, Lady Ranelagh, Lord Viscount Wenman, Lady Viscountess Wenman, Lady Viscountess Primrose, Lady Betty Finch, Lady Bathurst, and numerous Bathurst family members, along with many clergy and gentry chiefly from Devon and Cornwall.
The Preface to the Reader
In his preface, Barnard states that he undertook publication to fulfill the author’s desire, transcribing a fair copy from the author’s own manuscript without the least alteration, after revision by learned men. He acknowledges the little encouragement such treatises receive in anti-scriptural times, comparing Freethinkers to the ancient Traditors who delivered the Sacred Scriptures to be burnt. He cites the rejection and dispersion of the Jews as a lasting monument of God’s displeasure, their judicial blindness verifying the prophecy “They have eyes and see not.” He warns those who would supplant Revelation to beware God’s vengeance, insisting there is no justification or salvation but through Jesus Christ and uniform obedience to his Gospel.
The Editor’s Exhortation and the Author’s Method
The preface continues with an exhortation to constant reading of Scripture, but warns that readers need judicious commentators to avoid dangerous errors from private misconstruction. Anti-Christian principles, the writer contends, never had more daring advocates, so readers must arm against cunning craftiness. Humanity’s natural inclination toward indulgence requires the reminder that this life is a probationary state. Christ is the way, the truth, and the life; those who embrace his Gospel receive salvation, while those who obstinately deny him will be denied before the Father.
The preface-writer testifies that the author was esteemed a person of great learning and sound judgment, perfectly understood the original text, made divinity his chief study, and particularly applied himself to explaining these Epistles. He intended to cover all of Paul’s Epistles but died before completing the design. The author’s own introduction explains his method: not interpreting words by their first sound, nor implicitly following commentators on single texts, but first giving a distinct view of the general design of the whole Epistle. He sought the true occasion of the Apostle’s writing, the main subject, its principal branches, and their divisions, then clarified intricate connections and the hidden force of reasonings.
The General Argument and Occasion of Romans
When Paul was separated to preach to the Gentiles, he chose Isaiah’s prophecy as his rule: “To whom he was not spoken of, they shall see.” He avoided preaching where the Gospel was already known, and thus had not yet visited Rome. Hearing of the Gospel’s success throughout the Roman empire, he desired to impart spiritual gifts there, having been providentially disappointed multiple times. Having preached from Jerusalem to Illyricum and through Greece to Corinth, he planned to go to Rome en route to Spain, but was prevented by the churches of Macedonia and Achaia requesting him to carry their collection for poor Judean Christians. Obliged to return to Jerusalem, he sent this letter instead.
The Church was troubled by controversy between Jewish and Gentile Christians over Mosaic rituals. Paul shows that justification comes through faithful observance of the Gospel alone, without regard to the ceremonial law. The Epistle has a three-part structure: first, satisfying Gentile converts of their title to God’s favour through the Gospel alone; second, addressing Jewish Christians to show that the new Christian institutions abolish the old Mosaic ones; third, addressing Jewish rejection of the Gospel, showing that unbelieving Jews are rejected though a remnant is saved, and that Gentile conversion shall become the means of converting Jews. A fourth part contains moral exhortations, Paul’s constant way of concluding.
The Analytical Scheme and Early Notes
The analytical scheme divides the Epistle into salutation, introduction, and subject matter. The doctrinal part defines the Gospel as the manifestation of God’s power for salvation, revealing his gracious method of mercy through Jesus Christ. The necessity of this new institution is evident from God’s wrath against all ungodliness, the universal depravity of Gentiles corrupted against natural law, and Jews transgressing Moses’s law despite boasting of it. The analysis draws inferences: Jews cannot boast that their condition is better than the Gentiles’, and a man is justified by the obedience of the Gospel only, since God is one God of both. This is proved from Abraham’s example, justified before circumcision, and from David’s declaration. The Gospel’s universal extent is shown by Abraham being declared father of many nations.
The blessed fruits of the Gospel include peace with God, assurance of eternal happiness, and glory in afflictions. The righteousness of the second Adam is more effectual toward salvation than the first Adam’s sin was toward destruction. Jews under the law were plunged deeper into wrath and needed Gospel mercy more than Gentiles. Though free grace justifies all believers, the Gospel offers no encouragement to continue in sin. The second part covers discharge from the Mosaic law as by death, and the third part contains Paul’s vindication from prejudice, showing that Jewish rejection is neither total nor final.
The notes on the opening verses explain that the Apostolical Benediction signifies all manner of blessing from the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. Paul declares thanks for the Gospel’s success among the Romans, calling God to witness his constant prayers for them. “Throughout the whole world” means throughout the Roman Empire. Paul was hindered from coming to Rome by more necessary business, oppositions, and perhaps suggestions of the Holy Spirit. The Gospel is proposed to Jews first, then Gentiles. “Righteousness of God” means God’s mercy in Christ Jesus, and “from faith to faith” means from one degree of revelation to another. Paul then declares the reason for the Gospel’s institution: the necessity of redeeming mankind from God’s wrath, due to their impious practices. The knowledge of God is clearly afforded in nature, so their ignorance is inexcusable.
The Vanity of Human Wisdom and the Justice of God’s Abandonment
The commentary on Romans 1:21–32 unfolds as a stern diagnosis of humanity’s fall into idolatry and moral chaos. Grotius’s paraphrase describes how people, though owing gratitude and obedience to God, presumptuously departed from the light of nature, becoming vain and corrupt in their thoughts. Their reason, once capable of discerning good and evil, grew stupefied and blind. Pretending to great wisdom and usurping the name of wise men, they became more remarkably foolish, forsaking the worship of the Immortal God—which is their glory—to adore vile images made in the likeness of mortal men, birds, beasts, and odious reptiles.
The punishment for this apostasy was not arbitrary but judicial: God gave them up to their own heart’s lust, leading to uncleanness and the debasing of their bodies through shameful lewdness. This was a just and wise punishment in the natural consequence of their abominable idolatry, for they changed the truth of God into a lie and worshiped the creature over the Creator. The result was a direct descent into enormous lusts—women changing the natural use into that against nature, and men burning in lust one toward another, committing unnatural wickedness and receiving the fit recompense of their apostasy in the immediate effects of their debaucheries. Because they did not like to retain God in their knowledge, God gave them over to a reprobate, injudicious mind, leading to all unrighteousness: fornication, covetousness, malice, envy, murder, deceit, and a catalogue of vices. Though they know God’s judgment that such deeds merit death, they not only commit them but countenance and encourage others—a state the commentator deems worse than mere commission, for delighting in others’ sins demonstrates a strong affection to them that is incurable.
Footnotes clarify that “wise men” refers to the philosophy by which the world knew not God, particularly among Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans; true religion is man’s glory; idolatry is a deviation from right reason; and such crimes must be punished with eternal death in God’s wise government. A textual variant for verse 32 is noted but judged to have no comparable authority.
The Jew’s Self-Condemnation
The introduction to Romans 2 explains Paul’s rhetorical strategy. The Jews acknowledged that the foregoing description applied to all except themselves, so Paul’s task was to include them under condemnation, showing they are alike obnoxious to God’s final displeasure and need Gospel mercy. He proceeds with admirable art, avoiding offense by not naming them initially, turning their judging of others into self-condemnation, since they are guilty of the same crimes. He forbears naming them though he means the Jews, making his conclusion general, and convicts them at Romans 3:10 using their own Old Testament Scriptures.
In Romans 2:1–16, Paul turns Jewish censuring of others into proof of self-condemnation, for God is no respecter of persons and will render to every man according to his works. The paraphrase addresses vain men—Gentiles, reputed unclean by Jews—arguing that those judging others while guilty of the same practices are inexcusable. God’s goodness, forbearance, and long-suffering should lead to repentance, but hardness of heart treasures up wrath. God will render eternal life to those persevering in well-doing, and indignation and wrath to the contentious, with tribulation on every evil soul, of the Jew first and also of the Gentile. Those sinning without law perish without law; those sinning in the law are judged by it. Not hearers but doers of the law are justified, and Gentiles who have not the law but do its works are a law unto themselves.
The Jewish Instructor Condemned
The commentary continues with the Jewish claim to superiority through possession of the law. The Jew is described as an instructor of the foolish, a teacher of babes, possessing the form of knowledge and of the truth in the law—a complete system of religious and moral knowledge, both affirmative and negative precepts. The argument proceeds through rhetorical questions exposing hypocrisy: the Jew who teaches others but does not practice his own doctrine is self-condemned; the one who preaches against theft is inexcusable in stealing; the one who declares adultery heinous condemns himself with his own mouth by committing it; the one who proclaims idolatry abominable is heinously guilty, robbing God of his honour another way. The one who boasts of the law cannot escape wrath when his notorious transgressions bring scandal upon God’s name, as Scripture testifies that God’s name is blasphemed among Gentiles through Jewish unworthy behavior. The law thus serves only to expose and aggravate guilt. A marginal note explains that those Jews who are such only in outward profession are not Jews in God’s esteem—only nominally, and in vain.
Circumcision’s Vanity
The Apostle shows that circumcision profits only as an obligation and engagement, a motive and help to obedience. When it fails this effect, it serves to heighten the condemnation of disobedient Jews, especially by comparison with obedient Gentiles who, using only natural reason without revelation, obey God’s will. The circumcision God accepts is spiritual circumcision of a pure heart, not literal fleshly circumcision. Ceremonies had real value only insofar as they kept Jews steadfast to God and reminded them to avoid moral impurity.
Jewish Advantage and Objections
Paul asks what advantage the Jew has, answering: much every way, chiefly that unto them were committed the oracles of God—revelations with promises and threatenings. If some disbelieved, their unbelief cannot make void the fidelity of God. The objection that God would be unjust to punish sinners whose unrighteousness magnifies His righteousness is rejected with “God forbid”—God cannot be unjust, as Abraham declared. The slanderous principle “Let us do evil, that good may come” is condemned as damnable. Paul concludes that Jews are not better than Gentiles regarding justification, having before proved both Jews and Gentiles all under sin, citing Scripture that none is righteous, none understands, none seeks God; all have gone out of the way.
All Under Sin, Justification by Faith
The passage continues arguing that all people are concluded under sin and guilt, proved from Old Testament testimonies: there is none righteous, no not one; none understands or seeks God; all have gone out of the way and become reprobate and abominable; their throat is an open sepulchre, their tongues use deceit, poison of asps is under their lips, their mouth is full of cursing and bitterness, their feet are swift to shed blood, destruction and misery are in their ways, they know not the way of peace, and there is no fear of God before their eyes. These things are spoken to those under the legal dispensation, the Jews, so that every mouth is stopped and all the world—Jews and Gentiles alike—must acknowledge themselves guilty. From this it is manifest that justification by works performed according to any law is impossible, for the law only reveals the heinous nature of sin without supplying power to avoid it or means of recovery.
Superabounding Grace and the Answer to the Objection
The exposition of Romans 5:17–21 continues the argument that God’s mercy is a far greater principle for good than Adam’s offence was for mischief. If death reigned through one man’s transgression, then those who receive the abundance of grace shall reign in life through Jesus Christ. The paraphrase stresses that God’s love does not merely restore men from their lost condition but elevates them beyond their original natural capacities, making them heirs of God and joint-heirs with Christ. The law of Moses entered so that the offence might abound, yet where sin abounded, grace did much more abound. The annotations clarify that the law, though given to the Jewish nation, aggravated guilt and increased condemnation for those under it, contrary to its design. The notes explain that the article is prefixed to sin and death because they are figuratively spoken of as persons, that “the many” means the collective body of mankind, and that by Adam men lost animal immortality in an earthly Paradise, but by Christ they are advanced to spiritual eternity in the kingdom of Heaven.
Baptism and the Death of the Old Man
The Apostle then answers the objection, “Shall we continue in sin that grace may abound?” with indignation. Christians, as disciples of Christ, have put off the body of sin and cannot live in known vice consistently with their profession. Baptism signifies this—by descending under water they declare trust in Christ’s death and profess dying unto sin and rising unto righteousness. Being buried with Christ by baptism into death, believers should walk in newness of life, as Christ was raised by the glory of the Father. The “old man” is crucified that the body of sin might be destroyed, and as a dead slave is discharged from servitude, so one in whom the body of sin is killed is freed from subjection to it. Believers should reckon themselves dead unto sin but alive unto God, not letting sin reign in their mortal bodies. Paul speaks of servants transferred between masters: sin’s wages are death, but eternal life is not a reward—it is a gracious gift through Jesus Christ. The note observes that ancient baptism was by immersion or being buried under water.
The Marriage Analogy and the Law’s Severity
Addressing Jewish converts, the Apostle shows that the Christian institution abolishes the Judaical one, using the similitude of a woman bound to her husband while he lives but freed at his death. The law could not justify from sins into which evil inclinations drew them; the meaning is not that the law was the natural cause of sin, but that it discovered its heinous nature. The law, though not the direct cause of eternal death, became through disobedience an occasion for it. The Jewish law, as distinguished from the Gospel, was the same as the law of nature and required exact, unsinning, perfect obedience, which man through weakness and corruption cannot perform. Man is compounded of body and mind: the body is the seat of sense and appetite, while the mind contains reason and conscience. By reason, man is obliged to approve what is good, but because happiness and bodily pleasure are necessarily desirable, and the path to present happiness often lies through forbidden practices, man has an inclination to evil. Appetites and passions are so importunate that they draw him unavoidably into transgression, bringing him under subjection to sin and the terror of condemnation, from which he is delivered only by God’s mercy in Christ Jesus.
The Inward Conflict and the Wretched Man
The paraphrase explains that while under the law’s rigour, evil inclinations exerted power in men’s bodies, drawing them into sin whose issue is eternal death. The law is not itself sin; rather, knowledge of sin’s heinous nature comes by the law. Before the law came, men were comparatively in no fear of eternal death, but when the commandment came, sin revived and men became liable to everlasting death. The law, though just and ordained to life, produced death because it could not remove human frailty—the least trespass brought death. The law is spiritual, agreeable to reason and conscience, but man is carnal, having an animal body subject to appetites. A man’s actions do not always proceed from deliberate approbation of judgment; he does what he condemns. The “I” that sins is not the reasonable soul—the proper person—but “sin that dwelleth in me,” the natural inclination to evil. The passage concludes with the exclamation “O wretched man that I am!” describing man’s unconverted state, labouring under the law’s rigour, sensible of guilt without possibility of avoiding it. Deliverance comes only through God’s mercy in Christ Jesus.
The Law’s Role and the Spirit of Adoption
The annotations clarify that the law makes sin more plain, clear, and distinct, rendering it more inexcusable, compared to Christ’s statement that if He had not done works among the Jews, they had not had sin—meaning their sin would be comparatively much smaller. The discourse requires taking “lust” in a restrained and limited sense, since complying with evil desires constitutes sin, per James. The law under which Jews lived was the same with the original law of God in its full force and severity, requiring exact obedience with promises and curses. Yet God never dealt with men according to the strictness of that law, but anticipated the favour of the Gospel, dealing with men by the gracious terms of the new covenant. Patriarchs and holy men under the law were justified by faith, and God pardoned sinners upon true repentance. The note on verse 25 observes that ancient copies read “the grace of God” rather than “I thank God,” since grace directly answers the question “who shall deliver me?” The “I” of chapter 7 is put indefinitely for any unconverted Jew under the law, though the verses apply to any Gentile under the original law of God.
No Condemnation and the Assurance of Glory
Paul confirms that Christians are free from condemnation, delivered from sin’s guilt and dominion by Christ’s sacrifice. If one is truly a Christian, the body remains dead—void of activity toward sin—while the spirit is alive and vigorous toward righteousness. The indwelling Spirit of God, who raised Jesus from the dead, serves as a pledge and earnest guaranteeing that God will raise believers’ mortal bodies to eternal life. Christians are debtors, obligated not to live after the flesh, for living after carnal appetites leads to eternal death, but mortifying the body’s deeds through the Spirit leads to life. Those led by the Spirit are the sons, the beloved sons of God. Under the Christian dispensation, believers are not placed in bondage as Jews were under the legal dispensation, with servile terror from sin’s inevitability. Instead, they receive a spirit of adoption producing filial confidence, approaching God as a merciful father. This filial disposition testifies to conscience that believers are God’s children, and the Holy Spirit confirms this testimony. Being children makes believers heirs of God and co-heirs with Christ, assured of sharing his glory since they share his sufferings.
Suffering, Hope, and the Intercession of the Spirit
Present sufferings are incomparable to the glory to be revealed. The “creature”—the main bulk of mankind, strangers to Christ—waits with earnest expectation for the Gospel’s revelation, being in dismal want of life and immortality’s discovery. Mankind’s subjection to vanity came not through their own choice but through the Devil’s subtlety seducing our first parents into sin.
The Meaning of “Creature” and the Groanings of the Saints
Grotius clarifies that in New Testament idiom, the term “creature” does not refer to the natural world but to mankind, specifically the unconverted Gentile world. He supports this by cross-referencing Colossians 1:23, where the Gospel is said to be preached “among all mankind,” and Mark 16:15, where “every creature” is explained in Matthew 28:19 as “all nations.” Therefore, the “whole creation” awaiting redemption is the yet-Gentile part of humanity, distinct from the “first-fruits” who have already believed. He further explains that Scripture attributes desire and expectation to such creatures regarding things they need but do not yet understand, citing Christ as the “expectation of the Gentiles” and the “desire of all nations.” The groanings of God’s children, previously mentioned, are not born of impatience but are “comfortable longings” for heavenly joys, arising naturally in those who suffer for righteousness’ sake. Finally, Paul’s use of the word “creature” is emphatic and contemptuous, esteeming anything that could harm a perfect Christian as a despicable trifle.
Paul’s Answer to the Jewish Objection
Grotius outlines the core argument of Romans 9. Paul anticipates a Jewish objection: if his doctrine is true, then the Jews who reject the Gospel are outside the way of salvation, despite their national privileges and ceremonial righteousness. This would mean they are rejected as God’s people, which they consider impossible and contrary to God’s promises, imputing Paul’s view to personal prejudice. Paul solemnly protests his grief for them exceeds all other afflictions. He then demonstrates there is no injustice in God or breach of promise: the promise was originally to Isaac alone, not all Abraham’s children, and then to Jacob, not both his sons. Even among Jacob’s posterity, not all Israel are truly Israel. During the time of the law, God had mercy on whom He would, and whom He would, He hardened, as with Pharaoh. Therefore, at the Messiah’s coming, God may justly reject unbelievers and receive Gentiles who imitate Abraham’s faith.
The Paraphrase of Romans 9:1–18
The paraphrase presents Paul protesting his sincerity before Christ, with his conscience bearing witness in the Holy Ghost. His grief over Jewish infidelity and obduration exceeds all worldly calamities, and he could wish himself “accursed from Christ” to restore them. He enumerates their privileges: they are Israelites, possessing the adoption, glory, covenants, law-giving, temple service, promises, and patriarchal descent, and from them Christ came according to the flesh. The word of God has not failed, for not all from Israel are true Israel. The promise was to Isaac’s seed, excluding Hagar’s children, and Rebecca’s twins received distinction before birth, showing God’s election rests on His free choice, not works. As it is written, “Jacob have I loved, but Esau have I hated,” and God told Moses, “I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy.” Salvation is not of him that wills or runs, but of God who shows mercy. Scripture says to Pharaoh, “For this same purpose have I raised thee up,” so God has mercy on whom He will, and whom He will, He hardens, choosing from incorrigible offenders public examples of wrath.
Divine Mercy, Justice, and the Potter’s Power
The argument continues, asserting that God is gracious to whom He pleases, according to His own infallible wisdom, not human will. He gives up incorrigible rebels to the hardness of their own hearts, reserving them as examples of His judgments. No injustice can be charged against God for confining His promise to the remnant of believing Jews and the Gentiles who do Abraham’s works. Unbelieving Jews cannot complain, as God’s judgments have only hardened them. To the objection of why God still finds fault, the answer rebukes such “profane rashness,” affirming the potter’s power over clay. God has the sovereign right to reject one people and exalt another. The rejected Jews’ obstinacy made them liable to punishment, and God endures these vessels of wrath until their nation is swallowed in general destruction. In contrast, God shows the riches of His glory upon the vessels of mercy, whom He has called to faith in Christ.
The Prophetic Witness and the Sum of the Discourse
Grotius notes that Hosea and Isaiah foretold the calling of the Gentiles and the salvation of only a remnant of Israel. The sum of the discourse is that Gentiles, without prior revelation, have attained justification through faith, while Jews who pursued the law of righteousness missed it by seeking it through ceremonial observance and stumbling at Christ’s humility. A footnote clarifies that Paul’s wish to be “accursed” is figurative, meaning he wished to bear the temporal judgments coming upon the Jewish nation to restore them to God’s favor. Another footnote explains that God hardens hearts providentially, not intentionally, as His goodness produces contrary effects through human obstinacy, and that “hardening” and “self-hardening” signify the same thing under different aspects.
The Righteousness of Faith and the Necessity of Preaching
Paul’s heart’s desire is Israel’s salvation, but they have zeal without knowledge, being ignorant of God’s righteousness and establishing their own. Christ is the end of the law for righteousness. The paraphrase of Moses’ words explains that one need not ascend to heaven or descend to the deep, for the word of faith is near—confessing Jesus as Lord and believing God raised Him from the dead brings salvation. The commentary then treats Romans 10:11–13, affirming that whoever believes shall not be ashamed, and that the same Lord is rich unto all who call upon Him. The argument for this section states that since the Gospel blessing was for all, both Jews and Gentiles needed to believe, and Gentiles could not believe without sent preachers. The paraphrase explains that calling on the Lord supposes God intended the Gentiles to hear, and the prophets declared how welcome are the preachers of the Gospel of peace. To the objection that not all believe, the answer is that this rejection was foretold by Isaiah.
The Universal Preaching and the Stumbling of Israel
The paraphrase affirms the Gospel has been preached to all nations, applying Psalm xix.4 to the preachers. A lengthy note discusses the Hebrew word for “line,” which can also mean “loud voice,” and argues that the Holy Spirit directed writers to expressions prophetic of future events. Here, the “line” is a builder’s metaphor for laying foundations, the church being God’s building, and the apostles stretched their line through all the earth. The passage continues with Moses and Isaiah, who foretold that God would be found by those who sought Him not, while stretching forth His hands to a disobedient and gainsaying people. A footnote explains some might plead ignorance that the Gentiles were to be called, but this is answered by the prophets’ plain foretelling.
The Remnant and the Judicial Hardening of Israel
The argument for Romans 11 states that the main body of Jews is rejected but not universally cast off, as a remnant is saved by embracing the Gospel. The rest are judicially hardened per prophecies. God has not finally rejected the Jewish nation, for when the Gentile conversion reaches its fullness, it will convert the Jews, restoring all mankind. Gentile Christians should not despise the Jews but persevere in faithfulness, lest they be cut off.
The Right Use of Gifts and the Duty of Love
The annotation of Romans 12:3–8 opens with a warning against pride in one’s spiritual gifts. The text insists that no Christian should think more highly of himself than he ought, but rather judge his abilities soberly, according to the nature and proportion of the gift entrusted to him. The true good of a Christian lies not in possessing a particular talent but in using it rightly for the benefit of the whole church. The natural body, with its many members serving different offices, is compared to the mystical body of Christ, where all believers are members one of another and must work in harmony. The specific gifts listed—prophecy, ministry, teaching, exhortation, giving, ruling, and showing mercy—are each to be exercised with diligence and the proper spirit. A note on “proportion of faith” explains that “faith” here signifies faithfulness or the trust reposed in us, lamenting that a failure to grasp this has led to much weak and unintelligible speculation about God giving men faith.
The paraphrase then moves to exhortations on sincere charity, urging believers to abhor evil, cleave to good, and be tenderly affectionate in brotherly love. They are to rejoice in hope, be patient in tribulation, and given to hospitality, blessing persecutors rather than revenging themselves. On vengeance, the text quotes Deuteronomy, “Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith the Lord,” and explains that feeding an enemy heaps coals of fire on his head. A note clarifies that this phrase signifies God’s judgments falling upon those who maliciously oppress the meek, not the melting of an enemy into friendship, as some have mistakenly thought. Another note observes that while most Greek copies read “serving the Lord,” the paraphrase follows an alternate reading supported by ancient copies, as the common reading seems incongruously placed among particular precepts.
Submission to Governors and the Nearness of Salvation
The argument on Romans 13:1–7 establishes that Christians must submit to civil governors as ministers of God appointed for the protection of the good and punishment of the evil, obeying not only out of fear but for conscience’s sake, and paying tribute accordingly. A note clarifies that the Apostle does not declare how men come by rightful title to power, leaving that to each country’s laws, and that Christians are not exempted from civil duties by Gospel freedom, nor deprived of the rights belonging to fellow-citizens. The rule, as in 1 Corinthians, is that Christians have common duties and rights but no distinct civil privileges as Christians.
The paraphrase then turns to the duty we owe ourselves, urging sobriety, temperance, and purity. The “night of Pagan ignorance and wickedness” is past, and the “day-light of the Gospel” has come. Believers should cast off works of darkness and put on the ornaments of holiness and virtue, behaving honestly, not in debauchery, lewdness, or contention. They are to put on the Christian habits of holiness, righteousness, and charity in imitation of Christ, taking no care to indulge the body’s sensual appetites. A footnote notes that the Greek word rendered “armour” also signifies clothing or ornaments, suggesting the armour of holiness to defend against temptation. Another footnote observes that the reference to “strife and envying” seems to point forward to the subject of the following chapter.
The Weak and the Strong in the Church
The argument for Romans 14:1–15:13 summarizes Paul’s directions on diversity of opinion concerning indifferent things. Gentile Christians, who make no distinction between meats and days, are not to despise Jewish converts as superstitious, nor are Jewish converts to censure their Gentile brethren as sinful. Such judgment is wrong because God approves them, and judging others is not their business but Christ’s office, as all are accountable to him alone. Instead of judging, believers should avoid giving offense to weak brethren, denying themselves when their liberty might prove dangerous to others’ souls, and bearing with the infirmities of the weak, following Christ’s example of perfect meekness, charity, and patience.
The paraphrase instructs the rightly informed to receive the scrupulous without debate. The one who eats all foods should not despise the abstainer, nor the abstainer judge the eater, for God has accepted him. No one dares judge another person’s servant, for to God he stands or falls. Each should follow his own conscience regarding days and foods, giving thanks to the Lord in whatever he does. No Christian lives or dies at his own disposal, for Christ died and rose to become absolute Lord of both the dead and the living. All shall appear before the judgment-seat of Christ, and every one shall give account to God, our only proper judge. Believers should therefore judge this: no man should put a stumbling-block in his brother’s way. Though no meat is unclean in itself, it is evil to eat with offense, and one should not destroy a precious soul for whom Christ died. The essence of true religion consists not in distinctions of meats and drinks but in righteousness, peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost. The strong ought to bear the infirmities of the weak, not pleasing themselves, for Christ pleased not himself, enduring the contradiction of sinners. The paraphrase prays that God, the author and giver of all patience and comfort, would grant them to be likeminded one toward another.
Paul’s Apology and Travel Plans
The argument for Romans 15:14–33 presents Paul’s apology for writing, justified by his special appointment as Apostle to the Gentiles. He has been diligent and successful in this ministry and long desired to visit Rome, but was providentially hindered. He is currently obliged to go first to Jerusalem with a charitable contribution for poor Christians there, and requests their prayers for his safety from unbelieving Jews and for his acceptance by the Jewish Christians. After this business, he intends to come directly to them en route to Spain.
Paul is persuaded the Roman brethren are full of goodness and knowledge, and he writes boldly only to refresh their memories, given his office as Apostle to the Gentiles. He serves as a minister of Jesus Christ to the Gentiles, officiating like a priest in the temple, so that converted Gentiles may be presented as an acceptable offering, sanctified by the Holy Spirit. Notes explain that Paul compares himself to Jewish priests offering sacrifices, with the Gentiles’ faith as his sacrifice and the Holy Spirit as the libation. Paul glories in his labor and success in converting Gentiles, from Jerusalem round about to Illyricum, avoiding preaching where Christ was already named, lest he build on another’s foundation. This is why he has been hindered from coming to them. Having no more un-evangelized places in those parts, he plans to visit them on his way to Spain, after delivering the contribution from Macedonia and Achaia to the poor saints in Jerusalem. He beseeches them to pray for his deliverance from unbelieving Jews and that his service be accepted, so he may come with joy and be refreshed with them, closing with the blessing, “Now the God of peace be with you all. Amen.”
Salutations and a Solemn Warning
The argument for Romans 16:1–16 is a recommendation of Phœbe and salutations to several Christian acquaintances. Paul commends Phœbe, a deaconess of the church at Cenchrea, asking they assist her.
The Conference at Jerusalem and the Confrontation at Antioch
The annotation of Galatians continues with Paul’s account of his dealings with the Jerusalem church. The text explains that Titus, a Greek, was not compelled to be circumcised, despite pressure from certain quarters. The paraphrase identifies these agitators as “false brethren unawares brought in,” who came to spy on the liberty Christians possess in Christ, seeking to impose bondage. Paul’s refusal to yield, “no not for an hour,” was a matter of principle. The notes clarify that circumcision could have been performed for expedience, as it was with Timothy, but here it was rejected because compliance would have implied that the rite was necessary and efficacious for salvation, thereby frustrating the Christian religion. Paul was flexible for the sake of peace, but inflexible when the demand was framed as a necessity.
When the eminent leaders of the church—James, Cephas, and John, esteemed as pillars—perceived that the Gospel of the uncircumcision was committed to Paul, they extended the right hand of fellowship, agreeing that Paul and Barnabas should minister to the Gentiles while they went to the circumcision. The notes observe that the phrase “seemed to be somewhat” carries an ironic tone in English, but in the original it plainly designates men of real esteem and first rank, apostles who had been personally taught and sent by the Lord during his earthly ministry. The only request made of Paul was that he remember the poor, which he was eager to do.
The narrative then turns to a sharp conflict at Antioch. When Peter came, he initially ate with the Gentile believers, but upon the arrival of certain men from James, he withdrew and separated himself, fearing the party of the circumcision. His dissimulation carried away even Barnabas. Paul opposed Peter publicly, asking why he, a Jew living like a Gentile, would compel Gentiles to live as Jews. The passage proceeds to Paul’s theological argument: a man is not justified by works of the law but by faith in Jesus Christ. If righteousness came by the law, then Christ died in vain. The notes state that Paul speaks here in the person of a true Christian, dead to the law and alive to God through Christ’s crucifixion.
The Argument from Abraham and the Curse of the Law
Paul then rebukes the Galatians for their foolishness, asking who had bewitched them, since Jesus Christ had been evidently set forth as crucified among them. He reminds them that they received the Spirit not by works of the law but by the hearing of faith. A note explains that this refers to the extraordinary outpouring of the Holy Ghost that accompanied the apostles’ preaching, a sign that Gentiles were accepted by God, contrary to Jewish expectation that the Spirit was reserved for themselves.
Paul grounds his argument in the example of Abraham, who believed God and it was accounted to him for righteousness. Those who are of faith are children of Abraham. Scripture, foreseeing that God would justify the heathen through faith, preached the Gospel beforehand to Abraham: “In thee shall all nations be blessed.” In contrast, those who rely on the law are under a curse, for it is written, “Cursed is every one that continueth not in all things written in the book of the law.” The notes emphasize that God’s covenant with Abraham was made before circumcision, establishing faith and obedience as the foundation. Christ redeemed believers from this curse by becoming a curse for us, hanging on a tree, so that the blessing of Abraham might come upon the Gentiles and that they might receive the promise of the Spirit through faith.
The Covenant, the Law, and the Heir
The annotation proceeds to argue from human practice: once a covenant is confirmed, no one disannuls it or adds to it. The promises were made to Abraham and his seed—singular, not plural—and that seed is Christ. The law, which came 430 years later, cannot disannul the covenant confirmed beforehand by God. The law was added to restrain transgressions, suited to the childish capacities of the Jewish people, until the seed should come. It was delivered by angels through a mediator, which proves its inferiority to the promise, given by God in his single person without condition. The law is not opposed to the promises of God; the curse proceeds from it only accidentally, for it could not confer righteousness on frail men. Scripture declares all under sin, obliging all to believe in Christ. The ceremonial law served as a schoolmaster, confining the Jewish people under servile discipline until Christ came with his more sublime and spiritual precepts.
Now that faith has come, believers are discharged from the schoolmaster. Those baptized into Christ have incorporated themselves into his body, and all distinctions—circumcised or uncircumcised, slave or free, male or female—are abolished, for all are one in Christ Jesus. Believers, if obedient to the everlasting Gospel, are the spiritual seed of Abraham and entitled to the promised blessings. The annotation then draws an analogy to an heir who, during childhood, differs nothing from a servant, being under tutors until the time appointed by his father. So the church in its minority observed the rudiments of Jewish law. When the fullness of time came, God sent his Son, born of a woman, under the law, to set believers free and to institute a reasonable and spiritual religion, thereby abolishing the burdensome ceremony of the old covenant.
The Warning Against Relapse and the Allegory of Sarah and Hagar
Paul warns the Galatians against returning to the weak and beggarly elements they once served when they did not know God. He fears his labor has been in vain, as they observe days, months, times, and years. He makes a personal appeal, reminding them that they received him despite his bodily infirmity, treating him as an angel of God, even willing to pluck out their own eyes for him. Their seducers show warmth but with ill design, seeking to exclude them from true doctrine. Paul travails in birth again until Christ is formed in them.
The argument culminates in the allegory of Hagar and Sarah. Abraham had two sons: one by a bond-maid, born after the flesh, and one by a free woman, born by promise. These illustrate the two covenants. The earthly Jerusalem, represented by Hagar and mount Sinai in Arabia, is in bondage with her children. The Jerusalem above is free and is the mother of all believers. The promises of God are not for the natural seed of Abraham but for the spiritual seed, appropriated to the heavenly Jerusalem, the invisible church of Christ. Isaiah’s prophecy of the barren woman having more children than the married wife is interpreted to mean that the sons of the true invisible church from the Gentile world will outnumber those from the Jewish nation. As Ishmael, born after the flesh, persecuted Isaac, so the carnal Jewish church persecutes the true sons of the invisible church. Scripture commands that the bond-woman and her son be cast out, for the son of the bond-woman shall not be heir with the son of the free woman. God will cast out the natural Israel, the outward visible church, for it shall not inherit his eternal favour with the spiritual Israel.
Final Exhortations and the Glory of the Cross
The paraphrase urges believers to stand fast in the liberty Christ has given and not to be entangled with the yoke of bondage. If a Christian receives circumcision as a necessary duty, Christ will profit him nothing, for he lays himself under an obligation to fulfil the whole law. Those who are justified by the law are fallen from grace.
