A Collection of Several Pieces of Mr. John Locke – John Locke

A walk through Locke’s shorter works: religion, politics, and the limits of human understanding

Preface to the Reader

We begin with the author’s own prefatory remarks, where Locke addresses the reader directly about the origins and intent of the collection.

The pieces gathered here, Locke explains, were written at various times and on various occasions, and are now published together because they treat subjects that are “of great moment” and because they have been “much talked of, and as much misunderstood.” Locke notes that some of these pieces have circulated in manuscript form, and that he has been pressed by friends to make them public. He expresses particular concern about the fate of “The Reasonableness of Christianity”, which has been attacked, he says, by those who either have not read it or have read it with “prejudice and partiality.” The preface serves as a brief defense: Locke insists that the work contains nothing but what is “agreeable to the Holy Scriptures” and that his intention throughout has been to promote “the glory of God, and the good of mankind.” He acknowledges that some readers may find his reasoning too free, but he counters that truth needs no shelter from examination. “I have always thought,” he writes, “that the best way to come to truth, was to consider things as they are in themselves, and not to be led away by the names of persons, or the authority of custom.”

This preface matters because it establishes Locke’s self-understanding as a writer: he is not a system-builder offering a new philosophy, but a reasoner addressing particular questions as they arise. He positions himself as a defender of plain reading, especially of Scripture, and as someone willing to follow argument wherever it leads. The defensive tone also signals that the works to follow were controversial in their own time, and that Locke expects—and is prepared to answer—objection.

The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures: Chapter 1

We open the first major work of the collection, and here Locke begins at what he takes to be the beginning: the question of what Christianity actually requires for salvation, considered strictly from the biblical text.

Locke starts with a problem. The world before and outside of Christianity was in a state of moral and spiritual darkness. The ancient philosophers, for all their wisdom, could not establish a clear and universal rule of duty; their teachings were contradictory, uncertain, and confined to the learned few. The mass of mankind, Locke observes, “were left in ignorance and error, and had no certain knowledge of a law, which they were obliged to obey.” Into this situation, Christ came with a revelation: a plain, public, and authoritative declaration of God’s will. The central question Locke poses is this: what did Christ actually require of those who would follow him? His method is to examine the Gospels themselves, setting aside later creeds and confessions, to see what terms of salvation Jesus himself announced.

“What we are to believe concerning him, and what we are to do, are the two parts of the Christian religion: and the one is as necessary to be known as the other.”

Locke then examines the preaching of Jesus and the apostles. He finds that the fundamental requirement is belief that Jesus is the Messiah. This is the “one article of faith” that Christ himself demanded of those who would be saved. Locke traces this through the Gospels: Jesus tells Martha, “I am the resurrection and the life: he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live” (John 11:25). He tells the Jews, “If ye believe not that I am he, ye shall die in your sins” (John 8:24). And when Peter confesses, “Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God,” Jesus pronounces him blessed. Locke argues that this confession—that Jesus is the promised Messiah—is the foundational and sufficient article of faith for the early church. The apostles, in their preaching, required no more: Philip asks the Ethiopian eunuch only whether he believes “with all thine heart,” and upon the eunuch’s confession that “Jesus Christ is the Son of God,” he is immediately baptized.

This opening chapter establishes Locke’s entire hermeneutical approach: he reads the New Testament as a legal document specifying the conditions of a covenant. The covenant of grace, offered through Christ, replaces the covenant of works that mankind could not fulfill. And the explicit, repeated terms of this new covenant are remarkably simple: believe that Jesus is the Messiah, and repent of one’s sins. Locke insists that later theological additions—concerning the Trinity, the nature of Christ, the precise mechanics of the atonement—are not found in the apostolic preaching as the necessary condition of salvation. This is already a controversial claim, and it sets the stage for the detailed Scriptural argument that follows. What matters most for Locke is that the Gospel is “a law of faith, not of knowledge,” and that its demands are accessible to every rational person who can read or hear the plain words of Scripture.

The Reasonableness of Christianity: Chapters 2–4

Locke now moves through the Gospels and Acts in detail, building his case that the single article of faith—Jesus is the Messiah—remains the constant and sufficient condition for salvation throughout the entire New Testament.

Locke begins by examining the Gospel of John, which is often thought to require more elaborate belief. He quotes John 3:36: “He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting life: and he that believeth not the Son shall not see life.” But what does “believing on the Son” mean? Locke argues, by tracing the context of John’s Gospel, that it means believing that Jesus is the Son of God, which is to say, the Messiah. John the Baptist’s testimony, Nathaniel’s confession, the Samaritan woman’s report—all converge on this single point. When Jesus asks his disciples, “Believe ye that I am able to do this?” he is asking for trust in his messianic power. “The belief required,” Locke writes, “is the belief that Jesus of Nazareth is the Christ, the Son of the living God.” He then examines the apostolic sermons in Acts. Peter on the day of Pentecost preaches that “God hath made that same Jesus, whom ye have crucified, both Lord and Christ.” The hearers are cut to the heart and ask, “What shall we do?” Peter replies: “Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins.” No further creedal test is imposed. Similarly, when Paul and Silas tell the Philippian jailer, “Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved,” the jailer is baptized that very hour. Locke stresses that none of these early converts were required to understand the Nicene theology; they were required only to acknowledge that Jesus was the promised deliverer whom God had sent.

Locke then confronts an obvious objection: does this not make Christianity too easy? If salvation requires only a single act of belief, why should anyone live morally? He answers by emphasizing that repentance is always joined with faith in the apostolic preaching. To believe that Jesus is the Messiah is to accept him as one’s Lord and King, which entails a commitment to obey his commands. The faith that saves is not a mere intellectual assent; it is a trust that transforms the life. Locke insists that the Gospel never separates faith from obedience: “Faith is the root, but it must bring forth fruit.” He also points out that the New Testament repeatedly warns against those who profess faith but live wickedly—they are like the foolish virgins who had oil in their lamps but no reserve. Yet even here, Locke maintains, the fundamental condition is kept simple. The covenant is “a plain, intelligible rule” that even the simplest person can understand, precisely because it was designed for all mankind, not for philosophers.

These chapters clarify the core of Locke’s argument: he is not denying the importance of morality or doctrine, but is distinguishing between what is necessary for salvation and what is merely helpful or true. The Gospel, as delivered in the Scriptures, draws a clear line. Later developments in theology—the creeds, the councils, the disputes about the Trinity and the Incarnation—may be true and edifying, but they are not the terms of the covenant. Locke positions himself as a defender of the plain meaning of Scripture against the accretions of tradition and the demands of theological parties. His target is not orthodox Christianity but the tendency of religious authorities to “add to the Word of God” by making additional belief necessary for salvation, thereby shutting the kingdom of heaven against many whom Christ would have admitted.

The Reasonableness of Christianity: Chapters 5–7

We proceed to the heart of Locke’s argument, where he addresses the relationship between the law of works and the law of faith, and explains why a new covenant was necessary at all.

Locke begins by laying out the predicament of humanity under the original covenant. The law of works, given first to Adam and then more explicitly through Moses, required perfect obedience. “Do this, and thou shalt live” was its condition; “Cursed is every one that continueth not in all things which are written in the book of the law to do them” was its sanction. But all human beings have sinned, and therefore all stand under the curse of the law. No one can be justified by the works of the law, because no one can fulfill its demands perfectly. This is Paul’s argument in Romans and Galatians, and Locke follows it closely. The law, he says, was never given as a means of salvation; it was given to reveal sin, to show mankind its own helplessness, and to drive it to seek a savior. “The law,” Locke writes, “was a schoolmaster to bring us to Christ.” It made transgression clear, but it offered no remedy. The sacrifices and ceremonies of the Mosaic law could not take away sin; they were only shadows of the true sacrifice to come.

Into this situation, God offered a new covenant, the covenant of grace. Under this covenant, the requirement is not perfect obedience but faith in the Messiah. Those who believe are accounted righteous—not because they are sinless, but because their faith is accepted in place of perfect obedience. Locke emphasizes that this is a free gift of God’s mercy, not something that human beings earn. Yet he is careful to explain that the law of works is not abolished; it remains as the standard of God’s justice. What changes is the condition of acceptance. Under the old covenant, acceptance required perfect compliance; under the new covenant, acceptance requires sincere obedience joined with faith in the mediator. Locke’s phrase for this is that God “accepts our imperfect obedience” for the sake of Christ. The believer is not under the law as a covenant of works, but is under grace. This does not mean the believer is free to sin; it means that the believer’s failures are covered by Christ’s mediation, provided that the believer continues in faith and repentance.

“The law of works is that law which requires perfect obedience, without any remission or abatement; so that by that law a man cannot be justified or saved, but by a perfect conformity to it. But the law of faith is that law which, upon condition of believing in Jesus Christ, and repenting of our sins, accepts of our sincere, though not perfect, obedience.”

Locke then addresses a crucial question: what about those who lived before Christ? Were they all lost? His answer is that the same covenant of grace was available to them, though in a different form. The patriarchs and the faithful of the Old Testament believed in the promise of a coming Messiah, and that faith was accounted to them for righteousness. Abraham, Locke notes, “believed God, and it was counted unto him for righteousness” (Genesis 15:6). The content of their faith was less explicit than that of Christians—they believed in the promise, not knowing the name or the precise nature of the one who would come—but it was the same faith in the same savior. The difference is one of clarity, not of substance. This allows Locke to maintain continuity between the Old and New Testaments, and to argue that the Gospel is not a novelty but the fulfillment of an ancient promise. The reasonableness of Christianity lies precisely in this: it offers a solution to a universal human problem (sin and the impossibility of perfect obedience) through a means that is accessible to all (faith in the divine promise).

The Reasonableness of Christianity: Chapters 8–10

Locke now turns to practical matters: the role of good works, the nature of justification, and the meaning of eternal life as presented in the New Testament.

Locke begins by insisting that good works are not the ground of justification but are its necessary fruit and evidence. “Faith without works is dead,” he quotes from James, and he takes this seriously. The faith that saves is not a passive intellectual agreement but a living trust that produces obedience. Locke distinguishes between works done in one’s own strength, which have no justifying power, and works done in faith, which are the signs of a genuine believer. He points to Jesus’ teaching that a tree is known by its fruit, and that those who say “Lord, Lord” but do not obey will be rejected. However, Locke is careful to avoid any suggestion that good works themselves earn salvation. He returns repeatedly to the Pauline teaching that justification is by faith apart from the works of the law. The good works of a believer are acceptable to God only because they are performed in faith and through the grace of Christ; they are evidence that the believer is in a state of grace, but they do not cause that state.

Locke then examines the term justification as it appears in the New Testament. He argues that it means “being accounted righteous” before God, which is a status given to the believer on the basis of Christ’s mediation, not on the basis of personal merit. The justified person is one who has been accepted into the covenant of grace, and whose sins are forgiven because of Christ’s sacrifice. Locke is at pains to show that this is the consistent teaching of both Paul and James—that there is no contradiction between them. Paul speaks of justification in terms of the initial acceptance into covenant; James speaks of justification in terms of the demonstration of faith before others. Both agree that true faith will produce good works, but that the works are the consequence, not the cause, of justification.

Finally, Locke considers the nature of eternal life. He argues that it is not simply the continuation of existence after death, but a specific gift given to believers through Christ. The New Testament, he observes, presents eternal life as something that the righteous will receive at the resurrection, not as something that the soul possesses by nature. Immortality is a gift, not a natural attribute of human beings. Locke quotes 1 Timothy 6:16, which says that God “only hath immortality,” and argues that human beings receive it through Christ as a reward for faith and obedience. This leads him into a discussion of the resurrection, which he takes to be the central Christian hope. Death entered the world through Adam; life is restored through Christ. The faithful will be raised at the last day to enjoy eternal life with God, while the wicked will be raised to judgment. This, Locke says, is the simple, clear promise of the Gospel: “He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting life; and he that believeth not the Son shall not see life, but the wrath of God abideth on him” (John 3:36).

These chapters matter because they show Locke’s careful balancing act. He is a champion of sola fide—faith alone—but he is not an antinomian. He insists that faith necessarily produces morality, but he refuses to make morality the ground of salvation. His target is any system that either (a) makes salvation depend on works, thereby denying grace, or (b) treats faith as a mere formality, thereby denying the transformation that grace produces. The reasonableness of Christianity, for Locke, is that it offers a middle way: salvation is free, but it is not cheap. It demands everything of the believer—sincere obedience, repentance, and trust—while offering everything in return: forgiveness, acceptance, and eternal life. The Gospel is reasonable because it fits the human condition: it acknowledges our inability to save ourselves, and it provides a savior who does for us what we cannot do for ourselves.

The Reasonableness of Christianity: Chapters 11–13

We are now in the central doctrinal section of Locke’s treatise, where he turns from the content of the Gospel message to the nature of the faith required to receive it, and the relationship between that faith and the moral transformation it produces.

Locke begins Chapter 11 by addressing a question that naturally arises from his argument: if the only required article of faith is that Jesus is the Messiah, what becomes of the other doctrines taught in Scripture? His answer is that these additional doctrines are not conditions of the covenant, but rather explications or consequences of the fundamental article. They serve to explain what it means for Jesus to be the Messiah, but they are not themselves the terms of salvation. Locke writes: “The believing that Jesus is the Messiah, includes in it all the other articles of the Christian faith, as necessary consequences, or as parts of that one proposition.” The Virgin Birth, the Resurrection, the Ascension, the Second Coming—all of these are contained virtually in the confession that Jesus is the Messiah, because the Messiahship itself implies these things. But they are not, Locke insists, required to be explicitly known or believed by every person as a condition of justification. The Apostles themselves, he notes, did not preach these doctrines as separate conditions of salvation; they preached that Jesus is the Messiah, and then, as their hearers grew in understanding, they taught the fuller meaning of that confession.

The practical implication is significant: Locke is arguing that the simplicity of the Gospel is its genius, not its defect. He contrasts this with the complicated systems of theology that have multiplied conditions of salvation far beyond what the Scriptures actually require. “The Scripture is silent, where men think they have reason to speak,” he observes, and this silence is intentional. God, Locke argues, designed the Gospel to be accessible to the “poor, the illiterate, the daily labourers,” not just to scholars and theologians. To add additional articles of faith as necessary for salvation is to make the Gospel harder than God made it, and to exclude those whom Christ came to save.

“The believing that Jesus is the Messiah, includes in it all the other articles of the Christian faith, as necessary consequences, or as parts of that one proposition.”

Chapter 12 develops this argument by examining the role of repentance in the New Covenant. Locke here confronts a potential objection: if faith alone justifies, what place is there for repentance? His answer is that repentance is not a separate condition added to faith, but is rather the natural companion of genuine faith. To believe that Jesus is the Messiah—the Savior sent by God to deliver from sin and death—is necessarily to turn from the sin that makes that salvation necessary. Locke distinguishes carefully between repentance as a condition of the covenant and repentance as a moral disposition that accompanies faith. The New Testament, he argues, never presents repentance as a separate term of salvation that must be added to faith; rather, it presents repentance as the proper response to the Gospel. When John the Baptist and Jesus both preached, “Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand,” they were calling for a change of mind and life that naturally follows from accepting the Messiah.

Locke supports this by examining several key passages. He notes that in the Book of Acts, when the Philippian jailer asks, “What must I do to be saved?” Paul and Silas answer, “Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ.” They do not say, “Believe and repent,” because repentance is already implied in the act of believing. To truly believe that Jesus is Lord and Christ is to submit to his authority, and that submission entails turning from sin. Locke also examines the apostolic preaching in Acts, showing that the Apostles consistently called for faith in Christ as the one condition of salvation, while also exhorting their hearers to repent as a demonstration of that faith.

Chapter 13 addresses the relationship between faith and works in the New Testament, particularly in the Epistle of James, which appears to contradict Paul’s teaching that justification is by faith alone. Locke resolves this by distinguishing between two different senses of “justification.” Paul, he argues, speaks of the justification of the sinner before God, which is by faith alone, apart from works. James speaks of the justification of the believer before men, which is by works that demonstrate the reality of faith. “Faith without works is dead,” James writes, and Locke agrees: a faith that does not produce good works is not genuine saving faith. But the works themselves do not justify; they are the evidence that faith is real. Locke illustrates this with the example of Abraham: Paul says Abraham was justified by faith (Romans 4), while James says he was justified by works (James 2). The contradiction dissolves when we see that Paul is speaking of Abraham’s acceptance with God, while James is speaking of Abraham’s demonstrated righteousness before the world. Both are true, but they operate on different levels.

This distinction allows Locke to maintain the primacy of faith as the sole condition of salvation while fully affirming the necessity of good works as the fruit of that faith. He argues that the New Testament consistently teaches that those who are truly justified will produce works of righteousness, not as a means of earning salvation, but as a natural outflow of the new life they have received. The covenant of grace does not abolish the law as a standard of righteousness; it provides a way for sinners to be accepted despite their failure to keep the law perfectly, while also empowering them to begin to keep it sincerely. Locke concludes this section by reiterating that the Gospel is “a law of faith,” not a law of works—but this law of faith requires a faith that works by love.

The Reasonableness of Christianity: Chapters 14–16

LOCATE: In these chapters, Locke moves from the general structure of the covenant of grace to a more detailed examination of what exactly the New Testament requires for justification, focusing on the specific content of saving faith and the role of repentance.

PRESENT: Locke begins Chapter 14 by addressing a crucial question: if faith is the condition of the new covenant, what precisely must one believe? He observes that the Gospel writers and apostles did not demand belief in every doctrinal proposition contained in Scripture, but rather focused on one central article: that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God. Locke traces this through the Gospels, showing that when Jesus asked his disciples “Who do you say that I am?” and Peter answered “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God,” Jesus pronounced Peter blessed and declared that upon this rock he would build his church. Locke argues that this confession—that Jesus is the Messiah—was the fundamental article of faith from the beginning.

He then examines the preaching of the apostles in the Book of Acts, demonstrating that their message consistently centered on proving “that this Jesus is the Christ.” When the Philippian jailer asked “What must I do to be saved?” Paul and Silas answered simply: “Believe in the Lord Jesus Christ.” Locke emphasizes that they did not require him to understand the full scope of Christian doctrine, but to accept this one foundational truth. The author argues that this single article of faith was sufficient because it implicitly contained all other necessary truths: if Jesus is the Messiah, then he is the Son of God, the promised redeemer, the teacher sent from God, and the Lord who must be obeyed.

“This is the fundamental article of the Christian religion, and that which distinguishes it from all other religions; and it is that which, if it be believed, carries with it all the other articles of faith that are necessary to be believed.”

In Chapter 15, Locke turns to the relationship between faith and repentance. He argues that the New Testament consistently joins these two requirements together. While faith is the condition of the covenant, repentance is equally necessary—not as a separate condition, but as the necessary concomitant of genuine faith. Locke explains that repentance means a sincere resolution to forsake sin and live according to God’s law. One cannot truly believe that Jesus is the Messiah—the King sent from God—without also resolving to obey him as Lord. Therefore, faith and repentance are two aspects of the same turning to God.

Locke then addresses a potential objection: if faith alone is the condition of justification, why does the New Testament so often speak of repentance as necessary for forgiveness? He resolves this by showing that the Gospel presents repentance as the fruit and evidence of faith, not as a separate ground of acceptance. The faith that justifies is a living faith, which necessarily produces repentance and obedience. However, Locke is careful to distinguish this from the doctrine of works-righteousness. The sinner is not accepted because of the merit of his repentance, but because of his faith in Christ—yet a faith that does not produce repentance is dead and cannot save.

CLARIFY: Locke is walking a careful middle path here. He wants to preserve the Protestant principle of justification by faith alone while also doing justice to the New Testament’s repeated calls for repentance and holiness. By presenting repentance as the necessary fruit of genuine faith rather than a separate condition, he maintains the priority of faith while avoiding any suggestion that faith can be a mere intellectual assent divorced from a transformed life. This allows him to affirm that a person is saved through faith in Christ alone, while also insisting that the faith which saves is never alone—it always brings repentance with it.

PRESENT (continued): Chapter 16 develops the theme of obedience further by examining the relationship between the law and the Gospel. Locke acknowledges that some Christians have argued that the Gospel completely abolishes the law, so that believers are no longer obligated to keep it. He rejects this view as contrary to the plain teaching of Scripture. Instead, he argues that the Gospel confirms the law as a rule of life, even while freeing believers from its condemnation. The difference between the covenant of works and the covenant of grace is not that the law is set aside, but that the terms of acceptance are changed: under the law, perfect obedience was required; under the Gospel, sincere obedience is accepted through faith in Christ.

Locke examines several key passages from Paul’s epistles to support this interpretation. When Paul says that believers are “not under the law but under grace,” he means they are not under the law as a covenant of works that demands perfect obedience for justification. They are, however, under the law as a rule of life that guides their conduct. Locke points to Romans 3:31, where Paul asks “Do we then make void the law through faith? God forbid: yea, we establish the law.” The author argues that this verse clearly shows that faith establishes the law as a standard of righteousness, even while it provides a way of acceptance for those who fail to meet that standard perfectly.

Locke then addresses the role of good works in the Christian life. He argues that while good works do not justify us—they are not the ground of our acceptance with God—they are nevertheless necessary for salvation in the sense that they are the inevitable result of genuine faith. He distinguishes between works done before faith, which are worthless for justification, and works done after faith, which are acceptable to God through Christ. The believer is saved by faith alone, but the faith that saves is a faith that works by love. Locke concludes this section by affirming that the Gospel provides both the motive and the power for obedience: the believer, having been freely forgiven through faith in Christ, is now empowered by the Spirit to live a life of grateful obedience.

CLARIFY: This section represents Locke’s attempt to resolve a long-standing theological tension. He wants to maintain the Reformation’s emphasis on grace while avoiding the antinomian conclusion that moral effort is unnecessary. By distinguishing between the law as a covenant of works (which is abolished) and the law as a rule of life (which is established), he provides a framework that preserves both grace and obligation. The believer is not under the law as a means of earning salvation, but is under it as a guide for holy living. This allows Locke to affirm both the freeness of God’s grace and the reality of human responsibility, without collapsing into either legalism or license.

The Reasonableness of Christianity: Chapters 17–19

LOCATE: We are now in the final chapters of Locke’s argument, where he addresses the role of the law under the Gospel and anticipates objections concerning the necessity of repentance and obedience for salvation.

PRESENT: Locke opens Chapter 17 by returning to a question that has run throughout his work: if Christ has abolished the law, what law are Christians subject to? He answers by distinguishing between the law of faith and the law of works. The law of works required perfect, personal obedience as the condition of life; the law of faith accepts a sincere, though imperfect, obedience founded on repentance and trust in Christ. The law of works was given to Adam and repeated at Sinai; the law of faith is the new covenant brought by Christ.

“The law of faith then is, that God has proposed to mankind, that they should be justified, and have eternal life, for the righteousness of Christ, received by faith; upon condition of repentance, and a sincere obedience to the law.”

This law of faith does not set aside the moral law, Locke insists. It changes the condition upon which that moral law is accepted. Under the law of works, the least failure brought condemnation. Under the law of faith, a sincere though imperfect obedience is accepted for Christ’s sake, provided there is genuine repentance where one falls short. The moral law remains the standard of righteousness; what changes is the ground of acceptance.

Locke then addresses the objection that this makes salvation depend on works, contradicting the doctrine of free grace. He replies that the New Testament consistently requires both faith and obedience as conditions of salvation. The Gospel promises life to those who “by patient continuance in well-doing seek for glory and honour and immortality” (Romans 2:7). Faith without works is dead; works without faith are insufficient. The condition is not perfect obedience, but sincere obedience flowing from faith.

In Chapter 18, Locke examines the objection drawn from the parable of the workers in the vineyard (Matthew 20). Some argue that this parable proves all believers receive equal reward regardless of their works. Locke disagrees. The parable, he explains, concerns the call of the Gentiles to equal standing with the Jews in the kingdom of God, not the equality of rewards. It teaches that both Jews and Gentiles enter the same covenant upon the same terms — repentance and faith in Christ — not that their rewards in heaven will be identical.

Locke then turns to the distinction between justification and sanctification. Justification is the act of God declaring a sinner righteous for Christ’s sake, received by faith. Sanctification is the work of the Spirit transforming the believer into holiness. These two must not be confused or separated. God justifies the sinner, but He also sanctifies him. The faith that justifies is never alone; it is always accompanied by the beginning of obedience. The righteousness of Christ is imputed to the believer, but the believer is also made righteous in principle through the Spirit’s work.

Chapter 19 addresses the nature of repentance. Locke insists that repentance is not merely sorrow for sin, but a real turning from sin to obedience. It is a change of mind that produces a change of life. The Gospel calls men to “repent and believe the Gospel” (Mark 1:15), and these two are inseparable. Repentance without faith is insufficient; faith without repentance is impossible. Together they constitute the human response to God’s offer of salvation through Christ.

CLARIFY: These chapters complete Locke’s account of the Christian life under the Gospel. He has shown that the law is not abolished as a rule of life, but only as a covenant of works. The believer is called to sincere obedience, though this obedience is imperfect and accepted only for Christ’s sake. Locke is careful to preserve both the freeness of grace and the reality of human responsibility. Salvation is a free gift, but it is received through faith that produces obedience. This allows him to answer the charge that his view undermines grace while avoiding the opposite error of making salvation depend on human merit. The law of faith is truly a middle way.

The Reasonableness of Christianity: Chapters 20–22

LOCATE: In these final chapters, Locke addresses the role of the ceremonial law, the status of the heathen world, and the universal scope of Christ’s mission, drawing his argument to a close.

PRESENT: Chapter 20 examines the ceremonial law of the Jews. Locke argues that this law, with its sacrifices, purifications, and temple worship, was given to the Israelites as a pedagogy to lead them to Christ. These ceremonies prefigured Christ’s sacrifice and taught the people the need for atonement. But they were never intended as the means of justification. They were “shadows of good things to come” (Colossians 2:17), not the substance itself. With Christ’s coming, the shadows gave way to the reality.

Locke insists that the ceremonial law is now abrogated. Christians are not bound by dietary restrictions, feast days, or temple worship. To impose these upon Gentile converts would be to deny the sufficiency of Christ’s sacrifice. The Jerusalem council in Acts 15 confirmed this, requiring only that Gentiles abstain from idolatry, fornication, things strangled, and blood. The ceremonial law had served its purpose and was now set aside.

“The ceremonial law was a yoke which neither they nor their fathers were able to bear; and therefore it was taken away by the sacrifice of Christ, which was the substance of all those shadows.”

In Chapter 21, Locke turns to the state of the heathen world before Christ. He acknowledges that the Gentiles were without the written law of Moses. Yet they were not without all knowledge of God’s will. The apostle Paul teaches that the work of the law was written on their hearts (Romans 2:15). Their consciences accused or excused them according to their deeds. This natural law, however, was insufficient to save them. It could condemn sin but could not provide forgiveness or power to overcome it.

The Gentiles, like the Jews, stood in need of a Redeemer. Their ignorance and idolatry had led them into deep corruption. The philosophers, with all their wisdom, could not restore the knowledge of the true God or deliver men from the bondage of sin. The world, both Jewish and Gentile, was under sin and needed a Saviour. Christ’s coming was the answer to this universal need.

Chapter 22 draws the whole work to its conclusion. Locke reiterates that the fundamental article of Christianity is the belief that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God. This belief, when sincere and accompanied by repentance and obedience, brings salvation. The Gospel is a universal offer of pardon and life to all who will receive it on God’s terms. Nothing more is required for church fellowship than this confession; nothing less is acceptable.

Locke addresses the question of those who have never heard the Gospel. He acknowledges that God’s ways are just and merciful, and that He will judge all men according to the light they have received. Those who lived under the law of nature will be judged by that law; those under the Mosaic law by that law; those under the Gospel by the Gospel. But the revealed way of salvation through Christ is the only way explicitly offered to the world, and those who hear it are bound to accept it.

CLARIFY: These chapters complete Locke’s vision of a universal, reasonable Christianity. The ceremonial law is abrogated, the natural law is insufficient, and Christ is the only sufficient Saviour for all mankind. Locke has built his case systematically: the fall created a universal need; the law revealed but could not remove that need; Christ alone satisfies it through his atonement, which is received by faith producing obedience. The Gospel is simple, clear, and accessible to all. It does not require philosophical sophistication or priestly mediation. It requires only that a man believe Jesus is the Messiah and live accordingly.

A Letter Concerning Toleration (Abridged)

LOCATE: This letter, though published separately and after the main body of the work, is included in this collection as a substantial piece on the proper limits of civil and ecclesiastical authority.

PRESENT: Locke begins by distinguishing the civil magistrate from the church. The civil magistrate’s jurisdiction concerns “civil interests” — life, liberty, health, and the possession of outward things. His power is exercised by coercive force, including the sword. The church, by contrast, is a voluntary society of men joining together for the public worship of God. Its power is entirely spiritual: it may admonish, exhort, and even excommunicate, but it may not use physical force.

“I esteem it above all things necessary to distinguish exactly the business of civil government from that of religion, and to settle the just bounds that lie between the one and the other.”

From this distinction, Locke draws a clear conclusion: the magistrate has no authority to compel religious belief or practice. True religion consists in the inward persuasion of the mind, and such persuasion cannot be produced by outward force. A man may be forced to conform outwardly, but this does not produce genuine faith. Indeed, it produces hypocrisy, which is odious to God.

Locke addresses the objection that the magistrate ought to suppress false religion and promote the true. He replies that the magistrate’s only legitimate concern is the peace and safety of the commonwealth. If a religious practice threatens civil peace — such as human sacrifice or treason — the magistrate may suppress it. But he may not suppress a religion simply because it is false. Error is not a crime against the state.

The letter examines several cases. If a man’s religion requires him to worship in a way the magistrate disapproves, he must obey God rather than men, but he must also accept the civil penalties. If his worship is harmless, the magistrate has no business interfering. If his religion leads him to deny the existence of God, Locke argues that such a person cannot be trusted, since oaths depend on belief in God. But even here, the remedy is not persecution but civil caution.

CLARIFY: This letter establishes Locke’s foundational principle of religious toleration: the separation of civil and ecclesiastical authority. The state exists for civil peace and the protection of temporal goods; the church exists for spiritual worship and eternal salvation. Each has its own sphere, its own tools, and its own ends. To confuse them is to corrupt both. The magistrate who forces conscience does not produce faith but hypocrisy; the church that seeks the sword betrays its spiritual nature. Toleration is not indifference to truth but recognition of the limits of human authority.

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Abridged Selections)

LOCATE: This final selection presents key passages from Locke’s major philosophical work, focusing on the origin and nature of human ideas, the limits of human knowledge, and the proper method of inquiry.

PRESENT: Locke opens with a famous rejection of innate ideas. The mind, he argues, is at birth a tabula rasa — a blank slate. All ideas come from experience. There are two sources of experience: sensation, which gives us ideas of external objects, and reflection, which gives us ideas of the mind’s own operations. From these simple ideas, the mind constructs all its complex ideas through combination, comparison, and abstraction.

“Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas; how comes it to be furnished? … To this I answer, in one word, from experience.”

Locke then examines the nature of substance. We observe that certain qualities regularly occur together — e.g., solidity, extension, mobility — and we suppose some substratum in which they inhere. This substratum we call substance. But we have no clear idea of it; we know only the qualities. Substance is a “something I know not what” that supports the qualities we perceive.

On personal identity, Locke argues that it consists not in the sameness of substance but in the continuity of consciousness. A person is a thinking intelligent being that can consider itself as itself, the same thinking thing, in different times and places. This consciousness, not the soul or the body, constitutes personal identity. If consciousness is transferred from one soul to another, personal identity goes with it.

Locke distinguishes three kinds of knowledge: intuitive, demonstrative, and sensitive. Intuitive knowledge is the perception of agreement or disagreement between ideas without the intervention of other ideas — e.g., that white is not black. This is the highest kind of certainty. Demonstrative knowledge requires a chain of reasoning — e.g., mathematical proofs. Sensitive knowledge concerns the existence of external objects, which we perceive through sensation but cannot demonstrate.

The limits of human knowledge, Locke argues, are set by the range of our ideas. We cannot know what lies beyond our experience. Metaphysical speculations about angels, the soul’s substance, or the inner nature of things are beyond our reach. We must content ourselves with moral certainty where demonstration is impossible, and with probability in matters of fact.

CLARIFY: These selections present the epistemological foundations of Locke’s entire project. His rejection of innate ideas grounds all knowledge in experience, making it accessible to human reason. His analysis of substance, identity, and knowledge sets limits to what can be known. The moral and religious arguments in the earlier works presuppose this epistemology: the Gospel is a revelation, but it is addressed to beings whose minds are capable of receiving it through experience and reason. Locke’s philosophy is a philosophy of humility, acknowledging the limits of human understanding while affirming its genuine achievements.